Timing of menarche and the origins of conduct disorder

Abstract

CONTEXT: Precocious onset of menses (ie, age < or =11 years) has repeatedly been identified as a risk factor for higher rates of delinquency or conduct disorder (CD) in girls. Although this association is often conceptualized as environmentally mediated (via processes such as affiliation of early-menstruating youth with older, more deviant peers), such conclusions are premature as biological and genetic explanations have yet to be fully considered. OBJECTIVE: To uncover the origins of the association between CD and timing of menarche. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The sample consisted of a population-based birth cohort of 708 mid-adolescent female twins assessed as part of the ongoing Minnesota Twin Family Study. We conducted 2 sets of analyses: standard bivariate analyses to uncover possible common genes and moderator analyses to evaluate possible moderation of genetic influences on CD by timing of menarche. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Conduct disorder was assessed via individual semistructured interviews with mothers and adolescents. Menarcheal status and age at menarche were assessed via the Pubertal Development Scale. RESULTS: The results argued against common genetic influences but did provide evidence of etiological moderation of CD by timing of menarche. The heritability of CD was strongest (67%) in girls with average timing of menarche (ie, age 12-13 years) and substantially weaker (8%) in those with early onset. Those with late initiation of menses (ie, age >13 years) similarly exhibited weaker genetic influences (29%). Shared environmental influences showed the opposite pattern, as they were far stronger for those with precocious and delayed onset vs those with average onset. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide indirect support for psychosocial interpretations of the impact of precocious menarche and, to a lesser extent, delayed menarche on CD development. Further, they lend support to the notion that in some cases, genetic influences on psychopathology may be strongest in the "average, expectable" environment.