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Observations of the living developing nerve fiber
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TL;DR
Harrison isolated fragments of frog embryonic nervous tissue in clotted adult frog lymph and observed living nerve fibers extending into the clot, showing that the fiber grows by the outflowing of protoplasm whose distal end retains amoeboid activity. This provided direct evidence that the axis cylinder is drawn out by amoeboid movement of the nerve cell's protoplasm, without participation of other cells.
Key findings
- Fibers leaving the nerve-tissue mass into the surrounding lymph-clot were usually first seen 2, occasionally 3, and once or twice 4 days after isolation; they are almost hyaline protoplasm devoid of yolk granules, about 1.5–3 µ thick, with irregular varicosities along their contours.
- The most remarkable feature is the enlarged end, from which extend numerous fine simple or branched filaments resembling rhizopods, with continual and rapid changes in form — "a mass of protoplasm undergoing amoeboid movements."
- When observed before growth was complete, the active end drew out and lengthened the fiber: one fiber lengthened almost 20 µ in 25 minutes, another over 25 µ in 50 minutes; the longest fibers observed were 0.2 mm.
- Branchial placodal thickenings formed similar fibers (in several cases seen to arise from individual cells), whereas myotomes, yolk endoderm, notochord, and indifferent ectoderm of the abdominal region did not — indicating a specific characteristic of nervous tissue.
- In embryos in which a segment of medullary cord was replaced by a cylindrical blood/lymph clot, serial sections after 2–4 days showed funicular fibers from the brain and anterior cord (naked axones without sheath cells) had grown a considerable distance into the clot, confirming that the fiber develops by outflowing of protoplasm from central cells, with no other cells or living structures taking part.
Methods
- Pieces of embryonic tissue known to give rise to nerve fibers (whole or fragments of the medullary tube, or ectoderm from the branchial region) were dissected from frog embryos about 3 mm long, shortly after closure of the medullary folds, when no visible differentiation of nerve elements is present.
- Tissue was transferred by fine pipette to a cover slip bearing a drop of lymph freshly drawn from an adult frog lymph-sac; the lymph clots quickly, fixing the tissue, and the cover slip was inverted over a hollow slide with the rim sealed with paraffine. With reasonable aseptic precautions, tissues lived a week and in some cases nearly four weeks, and could be observed daily under high magnification.
- For permanent preparations, a piece of medullary cord about four or five segments long was excised and replaced by a cylindrical clot of adult frog blood or lymph clotted in a capillary tube; after 2, 3, or 4 days specimens were preserved and examined in serial sections.
Limitations
- Stated: the cell aggregates making up organs do not undergo normal transformation in form, owing in part to abnormal conditions of mechanical tension, though individual tissue elements differentiate characteristically.
- Stated: because fibers develop largely within the mass of transplanted tissue itself, their mode of development cannot always be followed.
- Stated: permanent specimens showing isolated living fibers completely intact could not be made — the structures are so delicate that mere immersion in preserving fluid causes violent tearing, often tearing the tissue entirely from the clot; sections of some specimens showed nerves traced from the medullary tube walls but broken off short.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Masses of cells taken from the myotomes differentiate into muscle fibers showing fibrillz with typical striations.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The longest fibers observed were 0.2 mm.i n length.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When reasonable aseptic precautions are taken, tissues will live under these conditions for a week and in some cases specimens have been kept alive for nearly four weeks.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When portions of myotomes are left attached to a piece of the medullary cord the muscle fibers which develop will, after two or three days, exhibit frequent contractions.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They consist of an almost liyaline protoplasm, entirely devoid of the ~o l k granules, with which the cell-bodies are gorged.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This is especially so in the case of tlic fibers which are connected with the giant cclls described by Bohon and Beard.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bohon and Beard
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Still niorc instructive are the cases in mhicli the film is brought undcr ol.isen-ation be.fore it has completed its growth.Then i t is found that tlic eiid is rcr: active and that its moveinent results in the drawing out and lengthening of tlie fiber to which i t is attachcd.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If we examine sections of young normal embryos sliortly after tlie first nerves have developed, we find exactly similar structures a t the end of the developing neri-e fibers.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It has not :I:: yci: h e n found possible to make pmnanent specimens which slion-the isnlai(.(li i w w fibers complctely intact.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was found that the funicular fibers form the brain and anterior part of the cord, consisting of naked axones without sheath cells, had grown for a considerable distance into the clot.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 13
- Probably not a substantial claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the cell aggregates, which make up the different organs and organ complexes of the embryo, do not undergo normal transformation in form, owing, no doubt, in part, to the abnormal conditions of mechanical tension to which they are subjected; nevertheless, the individual tissue elements do differentiate characteristically.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In pieces of nervous tissue numerous fibers are formed, though, owing to the fact that they are developed largely within the mass Read before the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine at the 23d meeting, New York, May 22, 1907. of transplanted tissue itself, their mode of development cannot always be followed.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The end swelling bears a resemblancc to certain rhizopoils and close observation reveals a continual change in form, espwially as rcgards the origin and branching of the filaments.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When t.he placoclal thickenings of the branchial region are isolated, similar fibers are formed and in several of these eases they have been wen to arise from individual cells.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
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In the paper
“Groups of epidermis cells round themselves off into little spheres or stretch out into long bands, their cilia remain active for a week or more and a typical cuticular border develops.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Within this protoplasm thcrc is no definiteness of structure; thougli a faint fibrillation may sonictiines be observed and faintly-defined granules are discernible.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most remarkable feature of the film is its enlarged end, from nhicli estcnd numerous fine simple or branched filaments.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fibers are about 1.5-3 p thick and their contours show here and tliere irregular varicosities.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The structures are so delicaie that.tlitr mere immersion in the preserving fluid is sufficient to cause violent tearing and this very frequently results in the tearing away of the tissue in its entirety from the clot.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, sections have been cut of some of the specimens and nerves have been traced from the walls of the medullary tube but they were in all cases broken off short.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One fiber was 01)scn-cd to lengt.lienalmost 20 p in 25 minutes, another over 25 p in 50 miniites.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The development of the nerve fiber is thus brought about by means of one of the very primitive properties of living protoplasm, amceboid moyement, which, though probably common to some extent to all the cells of the embryo, is especially accentuated in the nerve cells at this period of development.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While at present it seems certain that the mere outgrowth of the fibers is largely independent of external stimuli, it is, of course, probable that in the body of the embryo there are many influences which guide the nioying end and bring about contact with the proper end structure.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This protoplasm retains its aniceboid activity at its distal end, the result being that it is drawn out into a long thread which becomes the axis cylinder.”
§ OBSERVATIONS ON THE TJVING DEVELOPING NERVE FIBER.' > BY
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The whole or fragments of the medullary tube, or ectoderm from the branchial region, are known to give rise to nerve fibers.
“The method employed was to isolate pieces of embryonic tissue, known to gh-e rise to nerve fibers, as for example, the whole or fragments of the medullary tube, or ectoderm from the branchial region, and to observe their further development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Frog embryos about 3 mm long, shortly after closure of the medullary folds, have no visible differentiation of nerve elements.
“The pieces were taken from frog embryos about 3 mm.long at which stage, i. e., shortly after the closure of the medullary folds, there is no visible differentiation of the nerve elements.”
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“When Ross Harrison successfully cultured nerve fibre cells from a frog embryo in 1907 [1], little did he know that cell culture technique would act as an indispensable tool for a plethora of other biomedical applications, by the end of the next century.”
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“Beginning with Wilhelm Roux ´ s experiments on cleavage of frog embryos (Roux, 1885), more culturing experiments followed with macerated plants and lower animals, like sponges or sea urchins.”
de Santos‐Sierra, D., Leyva, I., Almendral, J. A., Boccaletti, S., & Sendiña–Nadal, I. (2019) · SEMA SIMAI Springer series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16585-7_4 · Cited by 3
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Tissue Culture of the Organ of Corti: Part II
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Nerve Cells in Culture: Studies on Spontaneous Bioelectric Activity
Mamoon, A., Schlapfer, W. T., Gähwiler, B. H., & Tobias, C. A. (1977) · Advances in biological and medical physics · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-005216-5.50006-2 · Cited by 3
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Comparative Mammalian Lung Primary Surface Epithelial Cell Culture
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Unanticipated Trends Stemming from Initial Events in the History of Cell Culture: Vitalism in 2013?
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CELL INTERACTIONS: THE ROOTS OF A CENTURY OF RESEARCH
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Polymers of 2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic Acid Induce Formation of Spheroids in Mammalian Cells
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“Since the 1900s, the 2D in vitro system has remained the most commonly used [20,21].”
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“In 1907, Harrison conducted the first cell cultures as part of his investigation into the development of nerve fibres ( Harrison et al ., 1907 ).”
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“4 development in tissue cultures is traceable back to the landmark discovery by Ross Harrison in 1907, in which he invented the “hanging drop” technique using the combined frog embryonic nerve fragments and lymphoid tissue to prepare explants on sterile coverslips [12].”
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“Since the first-ever tissue culture study performed by Harrison in 1907 [1], mammalian cells have been cultured in two-dimensional (2D) settings, resulting in our current knowledge of molecular regulation of stem cells.”
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“(1) The forced-fl oating method of 3D cell culture involves coating cell culture plastic with a substance, e.”
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“According to Ross Harrison (1907), embryonic nerve cells send long projections out of the central nervous system and later they take contact with the appropriate peripheral target.”
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Die Ultrastruktur von Lang-Zeit-Kulturen embryonaler H�hnchenherzen
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A cell culture system with better spatial and time resolution
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“Techniques of cell culture were developed at the turn of the 20th century [1] and are still today an important tool for studies of basic biology [2], tissue engineering [3], bioelectronics [4] and biosensor fabricating [5].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Harrison, R. G., Greenman, M. J., Mall, F. P., & Jackson, C. M.
- Venue
- The Anatomical Record
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1907-06
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 116-128
- ISSN
- 0003-276X (ISSN-L)
- 1097-0185
- OpenAlex
- W2170806689
- Semantic Scholar
- 2108d571d9e512cd76863d0b7922f55e32fa66b3
- Cited by
- 515
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 1.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Anatomical Record (publishedVersion)
- Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Nerve injury and regeneration
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Anatomy › Classical Anatomy and Histology
- Keywords
- axon growth, nerve regeneration, axon ultrastructure
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