Sex influences immune responses to viruses, and efficacy of prophylaxis and treatments for viral diseases
Open accessAbstract
The intensity and prevalence of viral infections are typically higher in males, whereas disease outcome can be worse for females. Females mount higher innate and adaptive immune responses than males, which can result in faster clearance of viruses, but also contributes to increased development of immunopathology. In response to viral vaccines, females mount higher antibody responses and experience more adverse reactions than males. The efficacy of antiviral drugs at reducing viral load differs between the sexes, and the adverse reactions to antiviral drugs are typically greater in females than males. Several variables should be considered when evaluating male/female differences in responses to viral infection and treatment: these include hormones, genes, and gender‐specific factors related to access to, and compliance with, treatment. Knowledge that the sexes differ in their responses to viruses and to treatments for viral diseases should influence the recommended course of action differently for males and females. Editor's suggested further reading in BioEssays X‐chromosome‐located microRNAs in immunity: Might they explain male/female differences Abstract
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Background retinal disease, age and sex are known to influence the inflammatory state of the retina and response to viruses in general.
“However, gaining greater understanding of the roles of background retinal disease, age and sex in determining the immune response should be prioritised as they are known to influence the in flammatory state of the retina and response to viruses in general (Klein, 2012; Klein and Flanagan, 2016; Chan et al., 2021a).”
From Gene Therapy-Associated Uveitis (GTAU): Understanding and mitigating the adverse immune response in retinal gene therapy (2025) · cites this paper as Klein, 2012
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References 120 · Cited by 284
- Authors
- Klein, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Klein, Sabra L.
- ORCID
- Klein, Sabra L.
- Venue
- BioEssays
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-09-26
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1050-1059
- ISSN
- 0265-9247 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-1878
- PMC
- PMC4120666
- OpenAlex
- W2124775637
- Cited by
- 284
- References
- 120
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4
- FWCI
- 1.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- BioEssays (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Society for Women’s Health Research
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI090344, R21AI090344, AI079342, R21AI079342)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › interferon and immune responses
- Keywords
- sex differences, viral infection, immune response, innate immunity, adaptive immunity, viral vaccines, antibody response, vaccine adverse reactions, antiviral agents, viral load, immunopathology, sex hormones, medication adherence, viral disease treatment
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Antibody Formation, Antiviral Agents, Female, Genes, MHC Class II, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Herpes Simplex, Humans, Immunity, Innate, Male, Sex Characteristics, Sex Factors, Vaccination, Viral Vaccines, Virus Diseases, HIV Infections, Treatment Outcome, Viral Load, Adaptive Immunity
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