Creatine and creatine forms intended for sports nutrition
Abstract
Creatine is a popular ergogenic supplement in sports nutrition. Yet, supplementation of creatine occasionally caused adverse effects such as gastrointestinal complaints, muscle cramps and an increase in body weight. Creatine monohydrate has already been evaluated by different competent authorities and several have come to the conclusion that a daily intake of 3 g creatine per person is unlikely to pose safety concerns, focusing on healthy adults with exclusion of pregnant and breastfeeding women. Possible vulnerable subgroups were also discussed in relation to the safety of creatine. The present review provides an up‐to‐date overview of the relevant information with special focus on human studies regarding the safety of creatine monohydrate and other marketed creatine forms, in particular creatine pyruvate, creatine citrate, creatine malate, creatine taurinate, creatine phosphate, creatine orotate, creatine ethyl ester, creatine pyroglutamate, creatine gluconate, and magnesium creatine chelate. Limited data are available with regard to the safety of the latter creatine forms. Considering an acceptable creatine intake of 3 g per day, most of the evaluated creatine forms are unlikely to pose safety concerns, however some safety concerns regarding a supplementary intake of creatine orotate, creatine phosphate, and magnesium creatine chelate are discussed here.
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The European Food and Safety Authority has expressed concerns about the potential cancerogenic effects of orotic acid.
“The European Food and Safety Authority has also expressed concerns about the potential cancerogenic effects of orotic acid [176,177].”
From Bioavailability, Efficacy, Safety, and Regulatory Status of Creatine and Related Compounds: A Critical Review (2022) · cites this paper as [176]
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- Authors
- Andres, S., Ziegenhagen, R., Trefflich, I., Pevny, S., Schultrich, K., Braun, H., Schänzer, W., Hirsch‐Ernst, K. I., Schäfer, B., & Lampen, A.
- Affiliations
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) (DE)
- German Sport University Cologne (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Andres, Susanne
- Venue
- Molecular Nutrition & Food Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-03-30
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 6
- ISSN
- 1613-4125 (ISSN-L)
- 1613-4133
- OpenAlex
- W2562038883
- Cited by
- 54
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 0.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Molecular Nutrition & Food Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) (publishedVersion)
- OpenAgrar (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Australian Institute of Sport
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Biochemical effects in animals
- Keywords
- creatine, creatine monohydrate, ergogenic aids, sports nutrition, supplement safety, phosphocreatine, adverse effects, vulnerable subgroups
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Consumer Product Safety, Creatine, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Humans, Mitochondria, Phosphorylation, Muscle, Skeletal, Dietary Supplements, Models, Animal, Muscle Cells, Performance-Enhancing Substances, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
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