Multiple imputation by chained equations: what is it and how does it work?
Open accessAbstract
Multivariate imputation by chained equations (MICE) has emerged as a principled method of dealing with missing data. Despite properties that make MICE particularly useful for large imputation procedures and advances in software development that now make it accessible to many researchers, many psychiatric researchers have not been trained in these methods and few practical resources exist to guide researchers in the implementation of this technique. This paper provides an introduction to the MICE method with a focus on practical aspects and challenges in using this method. A brief review of software programs available to implement MICE and then analyze multiply imputed data is also provided. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd .
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Autocorrelation function plots revealed convergence of ten imputed datasets.
“Autocorrelation function plots (Azur et al., 2011) revealed convergence of ten imputed datasets.”
From Mindfulness, Self-compassion, and Psychological Wellbeing as Correlates of Paternal Bonding in Pregnancy. (2025) · cites this paper as Azur et al., 2011
The MICE Steps section discusses checking convergence across imputation cycles, and The Number of Imputed Datasets to Create section says early research considered 5–10 datasets sufficient. Neither section describes autocorrelation function plots as a convergence check or reports convergence of ten imputed datasets. Our copy provides background for convergence checking, but not the specific method attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe PC-PTSD is a reliable 4-item questionnaire of symptoms related to post-traumatic stress disorder over the past month.
“This is a reliable 4-item questionnaire of symptoms related to post-traumatic stress disorder over the past month”
From Risk Factors for Self-Harm Ideation among Persons Treated with Opioids for Chronic Low Back Pain (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
The passages on scale items (Setting up a MICE procedure, page unavailable) discuss imputation generally, while the examples in Assessing the Imputation Procedure concern other variables. Searches for PC-PTSD and a four-item PTSD questionnaire found no passage addressing its reliability, symptoms, or past-month timeframe. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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References 37 · Cited by 3,542
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Yuan YC Multiple imputation for missing data: new concepts and development Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual SAS Users Group International Conference (Paper No. 267) 2000 Cary, NC SAS Institute
- Authors
- Azur, M. J., Stuart, E. A., Frangakis, C., & Leaf, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Venue
- International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-02-24
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 40-49
- ISSN
- 1049-8931 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-0657
- PMC
- PMC3074241
- OpenAlex
- W1919216911
- Cited by
- 3,542
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 404 · 2025: 482 · 2024: 487 · 2023: 408 · 2022: 375 · 2021: 402 · 2020: 272 · 2019: 251 · 2018: 131 · 2017: 110 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 24.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (1R01MH075828-01A1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- multivariate imputation by chained equations, mice, missing data, multiple imputation, psychiatric research
- MeSH terms
- Epidemiologic Methods, Humans, Research Design, Models, Statistical
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