Urbanization and Landscape Change in Early-Eighteenth-Century Boston: The Environmental Archaeology of Town Dock

In the paper

“These timbers were unfinished, with hewn ends, and arranged perpendicularly in a series of at least four layers.”

In the paper

“Sterile subsoil was not encountered, as the excavation was stopped at a series of waterlogged timbers deeply buried in the fill (Figure 3).”

In the paper

“The proportion of arboreal pollen varied among samples, but pine and spruce are generally dominant.”

In the paper

“Samples of the wooden timbers were collected for dendrochronology, and nine hemlock samples were matched to a sequence for northeastern Massachusetts, suggesting that the oldest timber was cut sometime after 1628, with the other eight timber dates clustering at the turn of the 18th century, in the range of 1681–1709 (Flynt 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Flynt 2011

In the paper

“The earliest deposits (Figure 2, X and XI) have a high number of pipes mixed in with domestic refuse and also contain more coral and ballast flint, which could either be wharf-related refuse dumped into Town Dock or material that was collected to use as fill in the grillage.”

In the paper

“The wooden grillage was made of cut timbers, only slightly modified, with areas of bark intact.”

In the paper

“Though these fill layers span the 18th century, most of the artifact deposition seems to be concentrated in the early to mid-18th century, with mean ceramic dates ranging from 1725 to about 1745 for all the historical strata.”

In the paper

“The Town Dock fill contained an especially large and diverse assemblage of seeds and nuts, whose preservation was aided by the wet and waterlogged conditions.”

In the paper

“Pollen from these deposits consists of taxa that reflect plant remains included with trash or waste discard, as well as natural pollen rain into Town Dock from both local and regional taxa.”

In the paper

“This includes some local nuts and berries, as well as a variety of herbs, greens, and potential medicinal plants (Figure 5).”

In the paper

“In contrast, the birds include a mix of barnyard species and wild hunted birds, with pigeon bones (likely the now-extinct passenger pigeon) being the best represented.”

In the paper

“Above the layer of the timbers are a series of historical layers related to the filling of the southern half of Town Dock, the construction of Faneuil Hall in 1740, the fire and rebuilding of the 1760s, and the expansion of the building in 1805 (Figure 2).”

In the paper

“Other common garden crops identified include watermelon, pumpkin or squash, pepper, and tomato.”

In the paper

“The granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius) is almost ubiquitous, though in consistently low numbers.”

In the paper

“Beetles associated with fecal matter include the dung beetle (Aphodius), rove beetle (Oxytelus), and, perhaps, water scavenger beetle (Cercyon).”

In the paper

“This includes both terrestrial weeds, such as ragweed, catchfly, and copperleaf, as well as more wetland plants, such as sedges, bulrush, and water nymph.”

In the paper

“Maple (Acer), alder (Alnus), birch (Betula), beech (Fagus), and chestnut (Castanea) pollen are also present in consistently small quantities throughout the samples and could represent either regional pollen rain or more local sources.”

In the paper

“While the majority of insects identified around the timbers live on hardwoods, specifically oak, other species associated with conifers were found at the bottom and at the top of the cribbing, where a capping layer contained many cut branches.”

In the paper

“Many of these are plants that colonize disturbed urban habitats or could be encouraged in garden beds, along fence lines, and other areas.”

In the paper

“European cereal pollen was identified in 11 samples, while maize pollen was only recovered from the deepest level, which dates to the early 18th century.”

In the paper

“The artifacts recovered from around the timbers date to the late 17th and early 18th centuries, and include substantial numbers of clay-pipe fragments, ballast flint, coral, and early stoneware, as well as stone cobbles.”

In the paper

“Despite the port location, only small numbers of fish bones are present, and most of these are commercial fishery species.”

In the paper

“Wharf borer beetles attacked the wooden structure of the cribbing, while a variety of other beetle taxa fed on the bark and wood of oaks, conifers, and other species of trees, as well as rotting vegetation included in the fill.”

In the paper

“Grain-specific pests include both pea and grain weevils, while some taxa are also carrion feeders.”

In the paper

“The birds are a mix of barnyard fowl and hunted birds, primarily pigeon.”

In the paper

“During the early 18th century the discard of trash and gradual infilling of the enclosed Town Dock also caused problems, leading to specific actions by the Town of Boston to try to curb trash disposal, including hiring people to haul muck from the bottom of the dock and the levying of fines for trash disposal (Bridenbaugh 1968:171; Seasholes 2003:33).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bridenbaugh 1968
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Seasholes 2003

In the paper

“The building was rebuilt in the early 1760s after a fire and was expanded in 1805.”

In the paper

“In 1728 the town decided to increase the area of the wharf and decrease the size of the enclosed Town Dock by filling the southern half of the inlet, and by 1729 there were leases for a series of small shops along the newly constructed wharf (Seasholes 2003).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Seasholes 2003

In the paper

“With the construction of the adjacent Quincy Market in the 1830s the shape of Boston's iconic central marketplace was largely set.”

In the paper

“This landscape is very much a human creation, formed through the process of filling in Town Dock inlet, on which the building currently stands, and lengthening and filling around the wharves to the east.”

In the paper

“Through much of this period the northern part of Town Dock remained open, collecting trash and gradually silting in until it was formally filled in the 1780s.”

In the paper

“Although the square adjacent to Town Dock had long been used as a market area, the citizens of Boston generally resisted the creation of formalized central-market buildings, expressing their anger through petitions and attacking the market building near Town Dock in 1737 (Friedmann 1973:202).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Friedmann 1973:202

In the paper

“Attitudes began to change in 1742 with the construction and opening of Faneuil Hall adjacent to the northern half of Town Dock.”

In the paper

“These botanical remains represent a diverse array of local plants, the produce of surrounding farms, and imported produce shipped from overseas and sold at local markets.”

In the paper

“Insects, especially beetles, typically live in relatively constrained areas and have very specific diets.”

In the paper

“It is difficult to determine whether the wetland plants are varieties that prefer fresh- or saltwater, but many sedges are common saltmarsh plants and thus could reflect the natural conditions of Town Dock or the tidal harbor to the east.”

In the paper

“These plants also give a key insight into the urban landscape around Town Dock, as the weedy margins of the surrounding roads and alleyways, and urban lots with small kitchen gardens, planting beds, and flowering berry bushes are pictured.”

In the paper

“This method of construction, with several layers of unworked timbers set atop each other, is referred to as grillage construction (Balicki 1998:114), which creates a heavy framework of crossed timbers to add stability to wet or unstable ground.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Balicki 1998:114 source

In the paper

“The grillage method of construction differs from more formal wharf construction of the period, which tended to employ joined timber cribs that were then filled with rocks and soil (Seasholes 2003).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Seasholes 2003

In the paper

“While the shells are at least a partial reflection of the natural environment, the rest of the faunal remains point more clearly to the development of the urban landscape with the displacement of local wild taxa and increased numbers of commercial animals—oysters, saltwater fish, and domestic animals—transported through Boston's food supply systems.”

In the paper

“Infestation not only damages the grains, but also dampens and warms them as a result of the biological activity. This attracts a second wave of pests and may result in further loss.”

In the paper

“The artifacts and timber dates suggest that the wooden cribbing could be part of the expansion of the wharves along Town Dock in the early 18th century or a base layer of timbers set down prior to the filling in the late 1720s or perhaps a combination of both.”

In the paper

“These parasite eggs, while present only in small numbers, as well as the recovery of fig and raspberry seeds, show that human night soil was dumped into Town Dock.”

In the paper

“lt has the greatest concentration of domestic artifacts and animal bones, which appears to be mostly trash from taverns, households, and businesses that ringed Town Dock, used in the filling of the inlet and the area around Faneuil Hall, which was a convenient area for waste disposal.”

In the paper

“Jacobucci (2007) found modest levels of cereal pollen in an early-19th-century privy in Boston, even though there were no cereal grains in the macrobotanical assemblage.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Jacobucci (2007)

In the paper

“The larvae of this insect burrow into sodden wood and are known to attack wharves and pilings, even in saltwater contexts (Campbell et al. 1990:324; Pitman et al. 1993:274–275).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Campbell et al. 1990
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pitman et al. 1993 source

In the paper

“The large number of domestic animal bones not only represents animals consumed locally, but also reflects the development of New England's broader agricultural landscape, with the region's diversified farms raising a mix of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and trading their surplus animals into the city.”

In the paper

“Two of the other taxa, AtIantic scallop and Macoma shell, are more mudflat dwellers and likely reflect the environments located to the east, slightly farther out into the harbor.”

In the paper

“The constant exposure to water apparently caused the wood to begin to decay, attracting the wharf borer, Nacerdes melanura (Figure 4).”

In the paper

“At least a dozen professional seed importers or garden suppliers operated in Boston between 1720 and 1740, selling seeds, plants, and the fruits and produce of urban gardens (Benes 1995).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Benes 1995

In the paper

“It is one of the world's most destructive pests of stored grains and cereals, and its life cycle is tied to them, as it reproduces within the grains themselves.”

In the paper

“Town Dock itself was originally called Bendall's Cove, with areas that had been wharfed out by the 1630s or 1640s (Seasholes 2003:22–23).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Seasholes 2003:22–23

In the paper

“This stored-grain pest is distributed throughout temperate regions and can be found in granaries, grain elevators, and flour mills (Bousquet 1990:100).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bousquet 1990:100

In the paper

“This is a common insect in colonial contexts, as are bean weevils (Bruchidae), which infest peas and beans, suggesting the presence of stored peas, a typical component of the English colonial diet.”

In the paper

“These species are common in urban samples of this time period and represent unsanitary conditions in general.”

In the paper

“Horses were a common feature of the 18th-century urban landscape, and the open areas being filled in Town Dock undoubtedly provided a ready receptacle for their waste, either as material that was purposefully cleaned up or washed into the harbor as rain runoff from the surrounding streets.”

In the paper

“Similarly, the grape (Vitis) pollen, while recovered in small quantities, is either from food or from grapes grown in local gardens, since this pollen rarely travels far from the plant.”

In the paper

“The excavated timbers had fill around and on top of them and appear to have anchored the fill on the wet bottom of Town Dock.”

In the paper

“A very similar feature, also dating to the early 18th century, was found at the edge of the Mill Pond, about a half mile to the north, and is interpreted either as an early-18th-century wharf or a base for landfill (Balicki 1998; Seasholes 1998).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Balicki 1998 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Seasholes 1998 source

In the paper

“These taxa probably grew in the general area, just as they do today, inhabiting vacant lots, roadsides, and the margins of more formal landscapes.”

In the paper

“This type of pattern appears to hold broadly across New England, with some differences in the proportions of the primary domestic animals and variation in the minor taxa eaten (Landon 1996).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Landon 1996

In the paper

“The primary historical fill layer (Figure 2, III) dates to the 18th century and appears to have been mixed during the 1805 expansion of Faneuil Hall.”

In the paper

“The faunal remains in the fill seem to be the trash from households and taverns around Town Dock, rather than from any commercial food-processing operations, as all parts of the skeleton are represented and there are no obvious concentrations of butchery refuse.”

In the paper

“There are too many oysters to be occurring naturally at the site, and the predominance of oyster shells shows they were widely consumed around Town Dock.”

In the paper

“The trash in these deposits thus comes from multiple households and sources, and is interpreted as broadly reflecting the activities in the surrounding area.”

In the paper

“The adults can feed on grain or flour of wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, and other grains (Campbell et al. 1990:224–225).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Campbell et al. 1990:224–225

In the paper

“In addition to all these recognized depositional vectors, some of the plant remains were likely deposited into the fill in the dung of horses or other animals being kept in the city.”

In the paper

“Some of the food plants could have come from more formal markets, representing the produce of surrounding farms, as well as trade goods imported into the city.”

In the paper

“The scarab Aphodius, commonly known as the dung beetle, is generally associated with the inanure of large domestic mammals, and its presence is likely an indication of deposition of horse manure or something similar into Town Dock.”

In the paper

“At the same time, the construction of larger wharves along the waterfront decreased the importance of Town Dock for shipping.”

In the paper

“This includes structured planting areas and kitchen gardens on individual lots, as well as larger nurseries and orchards.”

In the paper

“Some of this local vegetation also likely fed horses and other roving domestic animals turned out into the streets by their owners, a persistent urban problem (Bridenbaugh 1968).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bridenbaugh 1968

In the paper

“By the early 18th century, decades of dumping into Town Dock had fouled the water.”

In the paper

“At a very basic level the conditions in Town Dock must have been incredibly foul by modern standards.”

In the paper

“In central Boston this began in the 17th century with the reshaping of shallow tidal areas and marshlands to create enclosed docks for ships, the dredging of ship channels, and the construction of wharves ringing the docks.”

In the paper

“Filling and landmaking continued throughout the 18th century and incorporated debris from buildings damaged or destroyed in periodic fires, along with domestic and possibly tavern refuse (Bradley 1983:77–80).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bradley 1983:77–80

In the paper

“The filling of the southern part of Town Dock in the 1720s created new market and shop spaces and, ultimately, provided a location for the construction of Faneuil Hall in 1742, formalizing Boston's central market space.”

In the paper

“Privies were built on the edge of Town Dock in the early 18th century, and the town officials designated Mill Creek as a preferred dumping location for animal entrails (Bridenbaugh 1968:18,171).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Bridenbaugh 1968:18,171

In the paper

“Filling of these enclosed docks was often seen as a solution to the filth, and undoubtedly the fill continued to include the worst trash.”

In the paper

“The Wilkinson Backlot site yielded evidence of 17th-century fill containing an array of well-preserved artifacts and organic remains, some of which appear to be deposited as fill in a sawpit (Beaudry 1984:29– 32).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Beaudry 1984:29–32

In the paper

“Human intestinal parasites and large numbers of raspberry and fig seeds found in the fill samples testify to the presence of night soil, while dung beetles support the dumping of animal wastes.”

In the paper

“However, the most common shells are, in fact, oyster, the trash from taverns and household meals in local areas of the city.”

In the paper

“The creation of wharves and docks, and the later filling to make land, restructured the landscape and in the process created the urban environment.”