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A review of the distribution, sources, genesis, and environmental concerns of salinity in groundwater
Abstract
Awareness concerning the degradation of groundwater quality and their exacerbating adverse effects due to salinization processes is gaining traction, raising for adequate understanding of the distribution, sources, genesis, and environmental concerns of salinity in groundwater. Saline groundwater is widely distributed all over the world, with an area of 24 million km 2 (16% of the total land area on earth) and 1.1 billion people living in the affected areas, especially the arid/semi-arid areas in developing countries. These large-scale groundwater salinization problems are sourced from two major ways: natural and anthropogenic. The natural sources are diversified from connate saline groundwater, seawater intrusion, evaporation, dissolution of soluble salts, membrane filtration process to geothermal origin. The anthropogenic sources include irrigation return flow, road deicing salts, industrial and agricultural wastewater, and gas and oil production activities. The integrated approach of geochemical tracers and multiple isotopes (δ 18 O H2O, δ 2 H H2O, δ 11 B, δ 36 Cl, δ 34 S sulfate, 87 Sr/86 Sr, and δ 7 Li) is proved to be useful in the constraints of the origin and transport of solutes in groundwater. Groundwater salinization is often associated with high levels of some toxic elements like arsenic, fluoride, selenium, and boron. Four "triggers" lead to this association: salt effect, competing adsorption, microbial processes, and cation exchange.
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According to the salinity classification proposed by Li et al. (2020), the water consumed in the production processes at Olaroz and Fénix falls into the freshwater category.
“According to the salinity classification proposed by Li et al. (2020) [99], the water consumed in the production processes at Olaroz and Fénix falls into the freshwater category.”
From The water footprint of lithium extraction technologies: Insights from environmental impact reports in Argentina's salt flats (2025) · cites this paper as [99]
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Díaz Paz, W. F., Seghezzo, L., Salas Barboza, A. G., Escosteguy, M., Arias-Alvarado, P. V., Kruse, E., Hufty, M., & Iribarnegaray, M. A. (2025) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42523 · Cited by 13
“According to the salinity classification proposed by Li et al. (2020) [99], the water consumed in the production processes at Olaroz and F ´ enix falls into the freshwater category.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Li, C., Gao, X., Li, S., & Bundschuh, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern Queensland (AU)
- China University of Geosciences (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Gao, Xubo
- Bundschuh, Jochen
- Venue
- Environmental Science and Pollution Research
- Published
- 2020-08-19
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 33
- Pages
- 41157-41174
- ISSN
- 0944-1344 (ISSN-L)
- 1614-7499
- OpenAlex
- W3053008000
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 10
- FWCI
- 1.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science and Pollution Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (41521001, 41877204, 41902265)
- State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs (B18049)
- China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2018M642944)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geochemistry and Petrology › Groundwater and Isotope Geochemistry
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Resources Studies
- Keywords
- groundwater salinity, groundwater salinization, saline groundwater, saltwater intrusion, irrigation return flow, road de-icing salts, geochemical tracers, stable isotopes, boron, lithium, strontium, sulfur isotopes, arsenic, fluoride, selenium, solute transport, arid and semi-arid regions
- MeSH terms
- Environmental Monitoring, Humans, Seawater, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Salinity, Groundwater
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