Assessing biological invasions in protected areas after 30 years: Revisiting nature reserves targeted by the 1980s SCOPE programme
Open accessAbstract
Invasive alien species pose a major threat to biodiversity and natural ecosystems globally and negatively affect conservation efforts in protected areas. They can negatively alter biodiversity and ecological regimes and are a financial burden. Because of their negative impacts, it is important to better understand the threat and management of invasive alien species in protected areas (PAs) globally, and to know how these factors have changed over time. We give an update and compare how the threat and management of invasive species has changed in 21 PAs that were analysed as part of the international SCOPE programme on biological invasions in the mid-1980s. Of all the taxa analysed, invasive plants pose the greatest continued threat, and their numbers have increased in 31% of the PAs. Conversely, mammal invasions now represent less of a threat due to effective management in many PAs; 43% of PAs show a decrease in listed invasive alien mammal taxa. Invasions of amphibians, reptiles, and fish have remained stable over the three decades; around half of the PAs show no change for these taxa. Managers of most PAs consider the threat of invasions to be increasing, despite many (55%) PAs having sustained long-term management programmes and 45% having implemented additional ad hoc approaches. We draw on lessons from this analysis to support the future management of biological invasions in conservation areas. In particular, better monitoring and collation of data is needed, followed by increased preventative measures and the promotion of biological control for widespread species.
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The extent and overall impact of invasive species in protected areas is increasing worldwide, especially for invasive plants, despite some notable successes in dealing with such invasions.
“The extent and overall impact of invasive species in protected areas is increasing worldwide, especially for invasive plants, despite some notable successes in dealing with such invasions (Shackleton et al., 2020).”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as Shackleton et al., 2020
The Discussion (section 4; page unavailable) says invasions appear to be worsening in many protected areas, especially for plants, while noting substantial management successes for invasive mammals. The assessment covers 21 protected areas, and section 3.1.4 measures perceived threat rather than a worldwide increase in overall impact; those broader parts of the claim are not established. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn some cases, trends in biological invasions have been reversed following implementation of control efforts.
“These trends have sometimes been reversed following the implementation of control efforts (Simberloff et al., 2011, 2018; Shackleton et al., 2020)”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as Shackleton et al., 2020
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BackgroundSelf-citationAnimal invaders threaten protected areas worldwide
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“A 30-year re-assessment of biological invasions in different PAs of the world suggested that invasive alien plant species (IAPS) pose the greatest continued threat to PAs [9], whereas, according to the United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) about one fifth of the…”
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“Limited staffing and sporadic funding availability can lead to an ad hoc, short-term approach to IPS management (Shackleton et al. 2020).”
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“La introducción de EEI es una de las principales causas de la pérdida de la diversidad biológica, conjuntamente con el cambio climático (Harper & Bunbury, 2015; Armiñana et al., 2019, Shackleton et al., 2019, 2020).”
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“The proximity of the SRP to a protected area such as the Ilha Anchieta State Park (Figure 1B) is a concern given the susceptibility of natural preserves to invasive species (Shackleton et al. 2020) and the costs associated with post-invasion actions of eradication and control (Moodley et al. 2022).”
Biomass Allocation of Xanthium strumarium L.: A key factor for invasive success at high elevation
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Biodiversity conservation depends on the expansion of taxonomy and systematics research
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“Long-term monitoring programs are particularly valuable for understanding the complex dynamics of ecosystems and the inter-relationships and biotic interactions between and among species (Brown et al. 2001; Lindenmayer et al. 2012; Lindenmayer and Likens 2018; Shackleton et al. 2020).”
Lima, K. A., Wheeler, J. S., Connery, J. H., Miller‐Rushing, A. J., & Fisichelli, N. A. (2024) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14835 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Policy-Oriented Research in Invasion Science: Trends, Status, Gaps, and Lessons
Pinto, E., Vaz, A. S., Honrado, J., Roy, H., Pauchard, A., Stoett, P., Shackleton, R., Richardson, D., & Vicente, J. (2022) · BioScience · doi:10.1093/biosci/biac079 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationContrasting biodiversity of invasive herbs inside and outside nature reserves in Guizhou
Guo, C., Zhu, J.-F., Liu, X.-Y., Zhao, C.-Y., & Li, J.-S. (2021) · Biodiversity Science · doi:10.17520/biods.2020292 · Cited by 2
Williams, J., Bühne, H. S. T., Häkkinen, H., O'Neill, D., Neupane, D., Dahal, B. R., Crowson, M., & Pettorelli, N. (2026) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-026-03821-7 · Cited by 1
Tamang, S., Khanal, S., Chaudhary, T., Poudel, J., Rawal, B., Paneru, C., Poudel, Y. B., Lamichhane, N., Shrestha, U. B., Sharma, H. P., et al. (2025) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-025-02315-x · Cited by 1
“These IAS are one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss, causing ecosystem degradation and reduced agricultural productivity (Py š ek et al. 2012; Bellard et al. 2016; Paini et al. 2016; IPBES 2023; Rilov et al. 2023; Roy et al. 2024).”
InfluentialCan We Turn Harmful Invasive Non-Native Fish Species into a Valuable Food Resource?
Jaćimović, M., Stanković, M., Trbović, D., Nikolić, D., Smederevac-Lalić, M., & Marković, Z. (2025) · Fishes · doi:10.3390/fishes10050207 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Salinas-Bonillo, M., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, A., Torres-García, M., Cueto, M., & Cabello, J. (2024) · NeoBiota · doi:10.3897/neobiota.96.136154 · Cited by 1
Even the losers: five-year distribution dynamics of alien plant species in South African savanna
Pyšek, P., Čuda, J., Foxcroft, L., Pyšková, K., & Hejda, M. (2024) · NeoBiota · doi:10.3897/neobiota.96.131634 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationBanerjee, S., Das, A., Rahman, M., Bhowal, S., Das, D., & John, R. (2023) · Environmental Conservation · doi:10.1017/s0376892923000024 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The threat of invasive species in PAs has increased the workload of forest managers and often poses insurmountable problems in habitat management (Shackleton et al. 2020).”
BackgroundBiological control for predation invasion based on pair approximation.
Gao, Z., Liu, S., & Li, W.-D. (2022) · Mathematical biosciences and engineering : MBE · doi:10.3934/mbe.2022480 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Invasive alien plants threatening Mount Kilimanjaro-Tanzania: a call for actions
Chitimbe, A., Giliba, R., & Ngondya, I. B. (2026) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-026-03913-4
“These species can alter native plant communities, disrupt ecological processes, reduce agricultural productivity, and pose risks to livestock health and rangeland quality (Burton 2019; Vicente et al. 2019; Shackleton et al. 2020; Ngondya and Munishi 2021).”
Bhatta, S., Kharel, N., Hejda, M., & Pyšek, P. (2026) · Biological Invasions · doi:10.1007/s10530-026-03946-9
“The impacts of invasive plant species in protected areas (PAs) have hindered the primary goal of biodiversity conservation (Foxcroft et al. 2013; Shackleton et al. 2020).”
Self-citationKhanal, P., Joshi, D. P., Bhattarai, S., Subedi, S., & Chataut, P. (2026) · Ecological Frontiers · doi:10.1016/j.ecofro.2026.07.012
Limited public engagement with plant invasions in national parks on Twitter/X
Novoa, A., Pipek, P., Canavan, S., Foxcroft, L., & Pyšek, P. (2026) · Koedoe: African Protected Area Conservation and Science · doi:10.4102/koedoe.v68i1.1862
Self-citationOda, G., Franco, D. D. J. B., & Pires, A. S. (2026) · Tropical Ecology · doi:10.1007/s42965-026-00427-x
“This result is worrying given that protected areas are an important part of global efforts to conserve biodi - versity, even if the overall impact of invasive species in protected areas has been increasing worldwide in recent years (Pyšek et al. 2020; Shackleton et al. 2020).”
Jayachandran, P., Ma, P., Velásquez, M., Kokesh, B. S., Jima, M., Uba, K. I., Lodeiros, C., Vishnudattan, N., Mello, L., Metri, R., et al. (2026) · Hydrobiologia · doi:10.1007/s10750-026-06253-5
“Commercialization poses additional risks, including reduced motivation for eradication, intentional spread, and conflicts between economic use and conservation goals, as observed in other invasive species (Van Wilgen et al., 2012; Nuñez et al., 2012; Shackleton et al., 2020).”
Exclusion of fire and grazing does not reduce annual grass invasion in a sagebrush steppe ecosystemPreprint
Smith, J. T., Allred, B., Boyd, C. S., Davies, K. W., Morford, S. L., Naugle, D. E., Rodhouse, T. J., & Stucki, D. S. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.05.21.726973
“Invasive plants, in particular, are a widespread and growing problem among protected areas globally (Shackleton et al. 2020, Carneiro et al. 2024), in some cases altering ecosystem function in profound ways (Vitousek et al. 1987, Foxcroft et al. 2017, Ren et al. 2021).”
Poudel, J., Chaudhary, T., Shrestha, U. B., Shackleton, R. T., & Shrestha, B. (2026) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-025-02372-2
“…suggests that PAs are not immune to biological invasions and their threats to biodiversity, ecosystem services and people remain signi fi cant challenges for PA management (Rai et al. 2012; Foxcroft et al. 2017; Shrestha et al. 2019a; Shackleton et al. 2020; IPBES 2023; Cadotte et al. 2024).”
Self-citationFernandez, R. D., Palchetti, M. V., Bruno, M., Aragón, R., Aguilar, R., & Giorgis, M. (2023) · Boletín de la Sociedad Argentina de Botánica · doi:10.31055/1851.2372.v58.n1.38523
- Authors
- Shackleton, R. T., Foxcroft, L. C., Pyšek, P., Wood, L. E., & Richardson, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- South African National Parks (ZA)
- Czech Academy of Sciences (CZ)
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Shackleton, Ross T.
- Venue
- Biological Conservation
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 243
- Pages
- 108424
- ISSN
- 0006-3207 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3007936173
- Cited by
- 83
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 7.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Biological Conservation (publishedVersion)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- IRIS (submittedVersion)
- SERVAL (Université de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universiteit Stellenbosch
- National Research Foundation (85417)
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology
- South African National Parks
- Czech Academy of Sciences (RVO 67985939)
- Czech Science Foundation (19-28807X)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Animal Ecology and Behavior Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Keywords
- biological invasions, invasive species, protected areas, invasive plants, invasive mammals, invasive amphibians, invasive reptiles, invasive fish, invasive species management, long-term monitoring, biological control, conservation threats
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