Microplastics selectively modify ranavirus-driven physiological disruption and gut microbiome restructuring in amphibians

Abstract

Amphibians often face overlapping infectious and environmental stressors that interact with non-equivalent magnitudes. We investigated the combined effects of microplastics (MPs) and ranavirus (RV) on the physiology and gut microbiome of the white tree frog (Litoria caerulea). Using a multiblock approach, we integrated diverse endpoints including corticosterone (CORT), body condition, serum biochemistry, antioxidant activity, and gut microbiome profiles. RV was the major driver of host variation, significantly disrupting body condition, protein homeostasis, bioenergetic budget, and renal/hepatic functions. While direct MP effects include CORT, bioenergetic budget and antioxidant defense, increased MP intensity amplified RV viral load, infection rates, and overall physiological disruption. The gut microbiome exhibited significant structural restructuring in weighted and unweighted UniFrac analyses, despite unchanged alpha diversity. Integrated analysis revealed that exposure history was primarily reflected in host physiology, with microbial features providing secondary, structured signals. We conclude that RV is the primary physiological disruptor, while MPs act as a modifier that exacerbates these responses. These changes represent a hidden cost that increases ecological risk in amphibians, even in the absence of overt clinical signs.