Evolution of the Human Nervous System Function, Structure, and Development
Open accessAbstract
The nervous system-in particular, the brain and its cognitive abilities-is among humans' most distinctive and impressive attributes. How the nervous system has changed in the human lineage and how it differs from that of closely related primates is not well understood. Here, we consider recent comparative analyses of extant species that are uncovering new evidence for evolutionary changes in the size and the number of neurons in the human nervous system, as well as the cellular and molecular reorganization of its neural circuits. We also discuss the developmental mechanisms and underlying genetic and molecular changes that generate these structural and functional differences. As relevant new information and tools materialize at an unprecedented pace, the field is now ripe for systematic and functionally relevant studies of the development and evolution of human nervous system specializations.
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Neoteny of cortical neuron development plays a major role in the emergence of HS features of developmental plasticity and adult brain functional properties.
“Neoteny of cortical neuron development is thought to play a major role in the emergence of HS features of developmental plasticity and adult brain functional properties.3,4,51”
From Synaptic neoteny of human cortical neurons requires species-specific balancing of SRGAP2-SYNGAP1 cross-inhibition (2024) · cites this paper as [51]
In “Developmental Mechanisms Underlying the Evolution of Human Nervous System” (page unavailable), the review says the human neocortex develops more slowly than that of other primates, allowing longer critical periods and greater environmental influence on developing capacities. This supports the developmental-plasticity portion, but the passage does not establish that neoteny of cortical neurons plays a major role in the emergence of human-specific adult brain functional properties. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredXenotransplanted neurons integrated as single cells within the mouse cortex develop morphologically and functionally following a months-long timeline remarkably similar to the one reported in the human developing brain.
“Here, we find that xenotransplanted neurons integrated as single cells within the mouse cortex develop morphologically and functionally following a months-long timeline that is remarkably similar to the one reported in the human developing brain (Defelipe, 2011, Sousa et al., 2017).”
From Xenotransplanted human cortical neurons reveal species-specific development and functional integration into mouse visual circuits (2019) · cites this paper as Sousa et al., 2017
The Developmental Mechanisms section (page unavailable) describes protracted human cortical neurogenesis and says the human brain develops more slowly than other primates’ brains. That supports a prolonged human developmental timeline, but it does not establish a months-long timetable for morphological and functional maturation of individual neurons or a match to the xenotransplanted cells. The xenotransplant findings are presented as the citing authors’ own results, not Sousa et al.’s. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe underlying biological mechanisms that lead to altered formation of the cortex in individuals with Down syndrome may not be reflected in existing mouse models owing to differences in neurodevelopment across species.
“Moreover, the underlying biological mechanisms that lead to altered formation of the cortex in individuals with DS may not be reflected in the mouse models that do exist, owing to differences in neurodevelopment across species23–27.”
From Consequences of trisomy 21 for brain development in Down syndrome (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Developmental Mechanisms section (page unavailable) describes differences between human and non-primate cortical development. Functional Modeling (page unavailable) says species differences complicate interpretation of mouse studies. These passages support the general caution, but the paper does not establish that existing Down syndrome mouse models fail to reflect mechanisms of altered cortical formation in people with Down syndrome. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe primate cortico-spinal pathway shows species-specific reorganization and direct monosynaptic connections, which may relate to corticalization of motor control and dexterity.
“Recent evidence points at primate-specific reorganization and connectivity of the cortico-spinal pathway, including the presence of direct monosynaptic cortico-spinal connections, which may be related to corticalization of motor control and the evolution of dexterity”
From Generation of Functional Human 3D Cortico-Motor Assembloids (2020) · cites this paper as Sousa et al., 2017
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References 275 · Cited by 517
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Squair J 2012 Craniopagus: Overview and the implications of sharing a brain 1 University of British Columbia’s Undergraduate Journal of Psychology
- Authors
- Sousa, A. M. M., Meyer, K. A., Santpere, G., Gulden, F. O., & Sestan, N.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-07
- Volume
- 170
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 226-247
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5647789
- OpenAlex
- W2735004254
- Cited by
- 517
- References
- 275
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 91 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 6
- FWCI
- 5.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH110926, U01MH103339, R01MH109904, U01MH106874, P50MH106934, U01MH105972)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Keywords
- brain evolution, cognitive ability, neuron number, brain size, neural circuits, comparative neuroanatomy, primate brain, brain development
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Biological Evolution, Gene Expression Regulation, Language, Mutation, Nerve Tissue Proteins, Nervous System, Nervous System Physiological Phenomena, Primates, Species Specificity
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