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Cited by 215Marine Toxins and Detection MethodsMarine animal studies overviewEnvironmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology

Prevalence of algal toxins in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment

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Lefebvre, Kathi A., Quakenbush, Lori, Frame, Elizabeth, Huntington, Kathy Burek, Sheffield, Gay, Stimmelmayr, Raphaela, Bryan, Anna, Kendrick, Preston +7 more·2016·Harmful Algae
DOI 10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.007PMC PMC8276754
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Abstract

Current climate trends resulting in rapid declines in sea ice and increasing water temperatures are likely to expand the northern geographic range and duration of favorable conditions for harmful algal blooms (HABs), making algal toxins a growing concern in Alaskan marine food webs. Two of the most common HAB toxins along the west coast of North America are the neurotoxins domoic acid (DA) and saxitoxin (STX). Over the last 20 years, DA toxicosis has caused significant illness and mortality in marine mammals along the west coast of the USA, but has not been reported to impact marine mammals foraging in Alaskan waters. Saxitoxin, the most potent of the paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins, has been well-documented in shellfish in the Aleutians and Gulf of Alaska for decades and associated with human illnesses and deaths due to consumption of toxic clams. There is little information regarding exposure of Alaskan marine mammals. Here, the spatial patterns and prevalence of DA and STX exposure in Alaskan marine mammals are documented in order to assess health risks to northern populations including those species that are important to the nutritional, cultural, and economic well-being of Alaskan coastal communities. In this study, 905 marine mammals from 13 species were sampled including; humpback whales, bowhead whales, beluga whales, harbor porpoises, northern fur seals, Steller sea lions, harbor seals, ringed seals, bearded seals, spotted seals, ribbon seals, Pacific walruses, and northern sea otters. Domoic acid was detected in all 13 species examined and had the greatest prevalence in bowhead whales (68%) and harbor seals (67%). Saxitoxin was detected in 10 of the 13 species, with the highest prevalence in humpback whales (50%) and bowhead whales (32%). Pacific walruses contained the highest concentrations of both STX and DA, with DA concentrations similar to those detected in California sea lions exhibiting clinical signs of DA toxicosis (seizures) off the coast of Central California, USA. Forty-six individual marine mammals contained detectable concentrations of both toxins emphasizing the potential for combined exposure risks. Additionally, fetuses from a beluga whale, a harbor porpoise and a Steller sea lion contained detectable concentrations of DA documenting maternal toxin transfer in these species. These results provide evidence that HAB toxins are present throughout Alaska waters at levels high enough to be detected in marine mammals and have the potential to impact marine mammal health in the Arctic marine environment.

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  • The toxic threshold of domoic acid in cetaceans is not well known, and it is uncertain if the high concentrations observed contributed to the death of the whales.

    “However, the toxic threshold of domoic acid in cetaceans is not well known (Lefebvre et al., 2016), and it is therefore uncertain if the high concentrations observed contributed to the death of the whales.”

    From Update on the status of gray whales since the 2020 Implementation Review (2024) · cites this paper as Lefebvre et al., 2016

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Authors
Lefebvre, K. A., Quakenbush, L., Frame, E., Huntington, K. B., Sheffield, G., Stimmelmayr, R., Bryan, A., Kendrick, P., Ziel, H., Goldstein, T., Snyder, J. A., Gelatt, T., Gulland, F., Dickerson, B., & Gill, V.
Affiliations
  • NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service (US)
  • Alaska Department of Fish and Game (US)
  • University of Alaska Fairbanks (US)
  • North Slope Borough (US)
  • National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (US)
  • University of California, Davis (US)
  • United States Fish and Wildlife Service (US)
  • Marine Mammal Center (US)
Corresponding author
Lefebvre, Kathi A.
ORCID
Venue
Harmful Algae
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2016-05
Volume
55
Pages
13-24
ISSN
1568-9883 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.007
PMC
PMC8276754
OpenAlex
W2267871614
Cited by
215
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 6
FWCI
10.88
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Harmful Algae (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • NOAA Institutional Repository (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • North Pacific Research Board (1113)
  • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
  • Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (R01 ES021930)
  • National Science Foundation (OCE-1314088)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Marine Toxins and Detection Methods
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Marine animal studies overview
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
Keywords
algal toxins, harmful algal blooms, domoic acid, saxitoxin, Alaska, bowhead whale, humpback whale, Pacific walrus, beluga whale, Phoca vitulina, climate change, sea ice decline, Arctic marine food web, neurotoxicity, Alaska Native subsistence
MeSH terms
Alaska, Animals, Arctic Regions, California, Cetacea, Environmental Monitoring, Marine Toxins, Caniformia, Prevalence, Aquatic Organisms

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