Atypical learning in autism spectrum disorders: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of transitive inference
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Objective To investigate the neural mechanisms underlying impairments in generalizing learning shown by adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).Method A total of 21 high-functioning individuals with ASD aged 12 to 18 years, and 23 gender-, IQ-, and age-matched adolescents with typical development (TYP), completed a transitive inference (TI) task implemented using rapid event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Participants were trained on overlapping pairs in a stimulus hierarchy of colored ovals where A>B>C>D>E>F and then tested on generalizing this training to new stimulus pairings (AF, BD, BE) in a "Big Game." Whole-brain univariate, region of interest, and functional connectivity analyses were used.Results During training, the TYP group exhibited increased recruitment of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), whereas the group with ASD showed greater functional connectivity between the PFC and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Both groups recruited the hippocampus and caudate comparably; however, functional connectivity between these regions was positively associated with TI performance for only the group with ASD. During the Big Game, the TYP group showed greater recruitment of the PFC, parietal cortex, and the ACC. Recruitment of these regions increased with age in the group with ASD.Conclusion During TI, TYP individuals recruited cognitive control-related brain regions implicated in mature problem solving/reasoning including the PFC, parietal cortex, and ACC, whereas the group with ASD showed functional connectivity of the hippocampus and the caudate that was associated with task performance. Failure to reliably engage cognitive control-related brain regions may produce less integrated flexible learning in individuals with ASD unless they are provided with task support that, in essence, provides them with cognitive control; however, this pattern may normalize with age.
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A few studies of adolescents with ASD have noted alterations in frontoparietal activity during paradigms invoking aspects of flexibility, including cognitive control and verbal fluency.
“A few studies of adolescents with ASD have noted alterations in frontoparietal activity during paradigms invoking aspects of flexibility including cognitive control (92–94) and verbal fluency (95), yet much remains unknown about this specific developmental period.”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [93]
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References 73 · Cited by 34
- Authors
- Solomon, M., Ragland, J. D., Niendam, T. A., Lesh, T. A., Beck, J. S., Matter, J. C., Frank, M. J., & Carter, C. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Brown University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Solomon, Marjorie
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 947-955
- ISSN
- 0890-8567 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4624100
- OpenAlex
- W2151920278
- Cited by
- 34
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 1.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1125788)
- University of Minnesota
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh080066-10)
- University of California, Davis (U54 HD079125)
- Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center (U54-HD079125)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 059883, R21MH099250, R01-MH080066, R01MH106518, R24MH081807, MH080066, MH080066-01, R01MH059883, K23MH087708, R01MH084895, R01MH080066-01, R01MH103284)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U54HD079125)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, transitive inference, generalization of learning, cognitive control, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, functional connectivity, hippocampus, caudate nucleus, adolescents, age differences, flexible learning
- MeSH terms
- Behavior Rating Scale, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Brain Mapping, Child, Female, Gyrus Cinguli, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Neural Pathways, Neuropsychological Tests, Parietal Lobe, Problem Solving, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Prefrontal Cortex
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