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Urban tree canopy has greater cooling effects in socially vulnerable communities in the US
Open accessAbstract
Cities are home to around half of the global population but face intensified and unevenly distributed heat stresses. Trees are utilized to adapt to urban heat; however, most tree planting is prioritized by either biophysical or social metrics, rather than an integration of the two. It therefore remains unclear how to maximize ecological and social benefits of tree planting in the context of environmental justice. Here, we analyze social vulnerability to heat and the cooling capacity of trees across 38 of the largest cities in the United States. We find that socially vulnerable people tend to live in hotter neighborhoods with less tree canopy. Furthermore, tree planting in such neighborhoods can achieve greater cooling benefits per unit increase in canopy. Increasing tree cover in these neighborhoods will meet the greatest need for cooling and achieve greater cooling capacity, creating social and ecological co-benefits. Adaptation measures must address both the distributional injustices of urban heat and procedural justice in planning and managing nature-based cooling approaches.
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“Historical injustices remain pervasive in the United States with cities marked by large inequalities in access to green amenities (113, 114), with a major concern about gentrification from “green” redevelopment (115).”
From Global synthesis and regional insights for mainstreaming urban nature-based solutions (2025) · cites this paper as [114]
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Quasi-experimental evidence that the urban tree canopy reduces residential energy consumption
Ravazdezh, F., & Rivers, N. J. (2025) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115992 · Cited by 6
Temperature Rise Amplifies Environmental Inequities? Europe’s North-South Divide
Mashhoodi, B. (2023) · Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy · doi:10.1007/s12061-023-09555-6 · Cited by 6
“…the inequality of exposure to LST. Studying the 38 largest U.S. cities, Zhou et al. found that high-income and high-educated citizens benefit more and immigrants benefit less from the cooling effect of threes – i.e. the coefficient of trees surfaces regressed against LST (Zhou et al., 2021).”
Elassal, D. A., & Jabareen, Y. R. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17104614 · Cited by 5
Dong, Y., Wang, J., & Sargai (2025) · Urban Climate · doi:10.1016/j.uclim.2025.102653 · Cited by 5
Self-citationLee, Y., Jegal, S., Lee, S., Son, B., & Im, J. (2025) · 대한원격탐사학회지 · doi:10.7780/kjrs.2025.41.5.11 · Cited by 5
Socio-demographic disparities of heat exposure in affluent, aging, and diverse Swiss society
Chang, Y., Manoli, G., Ghazoul, J., & Kleinschroth, F. (2025) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2025.106813 · Cited by 5
Gao, S., Chen, Y., Li, K., Chen, H. W., & He, B. (2026) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2026.107249 · Cited by 5
Wilson, B., Kashem, S. B., & Slonim, L. (2024) · Environment and Planning B Urban Analytics and City Science · doi:10.1177/23998083241226848 · Cited by 5
“…between land surface temperature and urban tree canopy in a sample of 38 cities in the United States and found a negative relationship in all but one location and further concluded that canopy “ has a greater cooling effect in hotter neighborhoods with fewer trees ” (Zhou et al., 2021: 1767).”
Li, X., Li, X., Guldmann, J., Cai, Z., Liao, W. Y., Yang, C., & Qiu, Q. (2024) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128462 · Cited by 5
Trees’ cooling amplified the effect of air purification in Shanxi
Yu, X., Cheng, X., Dong, J., Yang, Z., Xu, D., & Peng, J. (2025) · Applied Geography · doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2025.103569 · Cited by 5
Zhang, P., Liu, L., Yu, L., He, C., Chu, L., Li, Y., & Zhang, T. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-024-06094-6 · Cited by 5
“Therefore, it is imperative to increase green space in disadvantaged communities, considering both ecological and social benefits (Zhou et al. 2021).”
Chapter 26 : Southern Great Plains. Fifth National Climate Assessment
McPherson, R. A., Fay, P. A., Alvarez, S. G., Bertrand, D., Broadbent, T. L., Bruno, T., Fares, A., McCullough, B., Moore, G. W., Moorhead, B. B., et al. (2023) · doi:10.7930/nca5.2023.ch26 · Cited by 6
An approach to prioritize urban tree planting to mitigate heat and advance equity in New Haven
Chen, S., Shives, E., Lund, K., Murphy-Dunning, C., & Seto, K. C. (2025) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2025.129039 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Zhou, W., Huang, G., Pickett, S. T. A., Wang, J., Cadenasso, M. L., McPhearson, T., Grove, J. M., & Wang, J.
- Affiliations
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- Beijing Normal University (CN)
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- The New School (US)
- US Forest Service (US)
- Corresponding author
- Huang, Ganlin
- ORCID
- Venue
- One Earth
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-12
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1764-1775
- ISSN
- 2590-3322 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4200100473
- Cited by
- 152
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 18
- FWCI
- 5.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- One Earth (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Heat Island Mitigation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Urban Arborization and Environmental Studies
- Keywords
- urban tree canopy, urban heat, social vulnerability, environmental justice, tree planting, cooling capacity, heat stress, nature-based solutions, urban heat adaptation
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