Comparing and theorizing state–diaspora relations

“…and explaining state-diaspora relations Though the term ‘diaspora’ was once reserved for a few archetypal groups that had managed to maintain an intact identity despite traumatic dispersal in the distant past, it is now seen more as an indicator of identity in flux (Cohen, 2008; Safran, 1991).”

“Tapping into the development potential of migration Much recent interest in state-diaspora relations is linked to a resurgence in optimism about the relationship between migration and development (De Haas, 2010; Faist, 2008; Gamlen, 2014; Skeldon, 2008; Spaan, Van Naerssen, & Hillmann, 2005).”

“…(Stark & Bloom, 1985) placed migrant remittances at the center of migration theory: where credit and insurance markets were weak, households sent emigrants abroad so as to access remittances to tide them through insecure times and allow economic expansion (Massey & Parrado, 1994; Taylor, 1999).”

“Tapping into the development potential of migration Much recent interest in state-diaspora relations is linked to a resurgence in optimism about the relationship between migration and development (De Haas, 2010; Faist, 2008; Gamlen, 2014; Skeldon, 2008; Spaan, Van Naerssen, & Hillmann, 2005).”

“Rather than fixed social entities, diasporas are now recognized as constituency-building projects initiated and led by political entrepreneurs in origin states and abroad (Brubaker, 2005; Dufoix, 2008; Mavroudi, 2007; S€okefeld, 2006; Vertovec, 1997; Waldinger, 2008).”

“Rather than fixed social entities, diasporas are now recognized as constituency-building projects initiated and led by political entrepreneurs in origin states and abroad (Brubaker, 2005; Dufoix, 2008; Mavroudi, 2007; S€okefeld, 2006; Vertovec, 1997; Waldinger, 2008).”

“To play their part, origin states must facilitate remittance flows (Barry, 2006; De Haas & Plug, 2006; Iskander, 2010; Itzigsohn, 2000), and solicit philanthropic donations, tourist dollars and investments from and through their diasporas (e.g. see Kuznetsov& Sabel, 2006; Newland & Patrick, 2004;…”

“Recent research has traced these trends, introducing terms such as “nations of emigrants” (Fitzgerald, 2009), “emigration nations” (Collyer, 2013), and “emigration states” (Gamlen, 2008a) to counterbalance the traditional focus of migration research on “immigration nations”.”

“…by the memory of violent dispersal (Demmers, 2007, p. 15), and who nurse ethnic grudges against homeland elites (Collier & Hoeffler, 2004, p. 575), perhaps even financing anti-state violence as “long-distance nationalists” (Anderson, 1992; Koser, 2003; Schiller & Fouron, 2001; Skrbi s, 2000).”

“Tapping into the development potential of migration Much recent interest in state-diaspora relations is linked to a resurgence in optimism about the relationship between migration and development (De Haas, 2010; Faist, 2008; Gamlen, 2014; Skeldon, 2008; Spaan, Van Naerssen, & Hillmann, 2005).”

“…of emigration (Brand, 2006; Collyer, 2013), identifying the institutional forms that characterize them (Agunias, 2009) as well as developing typologies (Gamlen, 2006; Levitt & Glick Schiller, 2004; Ragazzi, 2014) and theorizing on these developments (Brand, 2006; Iskander, 2010; Varadarajan, 2010).”

“…(Stark & Bloom, 1985) placed migrant remittances at the center of migration theory: where credit and insurance markets were weak, households sent emigrants abroad so as to access remittances to tide them through insecure times and allow economic expansion (Massey & Parrado, 1994; Taylor, 1999).”

“They must also capture the innovative scientific technologies and the market-fostering liberal ideals transferred home by migrants (Esman, 2009; Gillespie & Andriasova, 2008; Kapur, 2001; Riddle & Marano, 2008; Shain, 1999).”

“Alternatively, states may seek to tap into these nationalist passions, fostering groups who define themselves by heroic service to a cause at home (Shain, 2002), and who may be willing in times of strife to adopt the role of double-agents, intermediaries or peace envoys whilst abroad, or to return…”

“…investments and expertise of emigrants and their descendants (Goldring, 1998; Itzigsohn, 2000), while responding to the diaspora's growing claims for political and social rights (see inter alia Barry, 2006; Brand, 2006; Escobar, 2006; Fitzgerald, 2000; Green & Weil, 2007; Smith, 2003a; 2003b).”

“…it is not universal: many recent studies see attempts to engage the diaspora as futile efforts to mitigate economic dependence by appealing to diaspora elites for investment (Dickinson & Bailey, 2007; Faist, 2008; Larner, 2007; Mullings, 2011; Pellerin & Mullings, 2013; Varadarajan, 2010) .”

“…of emigration (Brand, 2006; Collyer, 2013), identifying the institutional forms that characterize them (Agunias, 2009) as well as developing typologies (Gamlen, 2006; Levitt & Glick Schiller, 2004; Ragazzi, 2014) and theorizing on these developments (Brand, 2006; Iskander, 2010; Varadarajan, 2010).”

“Such state-diaspora relations are not new (e.g. see Cano & D elano, 2007; Choate, 2008; Green & Weil, 2007), but they have proliferated since the 1990s.”

“…by the memory of violent dispersal (Demmers, 2007, p. 15), and who nurse ethnic grudges against homeland elites (Collier & Hoeffler, 2004, p. 575), perhaps even financing anti-state violence as “long-distance nationalists” (Anderson, 1992; Koser, 2003; Schiller & Fouron, 2001; Skrbi s, 2000).”

“…area of research have made great strides in explaining the various factors that drive or shape states' policies toward various forms of emigration (Brand, 2006; Collyer, 2013), identifying the institutional forms that characterize them (Agunias, 2009) as well as developing typologies (Gamlen,…”

“…of emigration (Brand, 2006; Collyer, 2013), identifying the institutional forms that characterize them (Agunias, 2009) as well as developing typologies (Gamlen, 2006; Levitt & Glick Schiller, 2004; Ragazzi, 2014) and theorizing on these developments (Brand, 2006; Iskander, 2010; Varadarajan, 2010).”

“Rather than fixed social entities, diasporas are now recognized as constituency-building projects initiated and led by political entrepreneurs in origin states and abroad (Brubaker, 2005; Dufoix, 2008; Mavroudi, 2007; S€okefeld, 2006; Vertovec, 1997; Waldinger, 2008).”

“…it is not universal: many recent studies see attempts to engage the diaspora as futile efforts to mitigate economic dependence by appealing to diaspora elites for investment (Dickinson & Bailey, 2007; Faist, 2008; Larner, 2007; Mullings, 2011; Pellerin & Mullings, 2013; Varadarajan, 2010) .”

“Tapping into the development potential of migration Much recent interest in state-diaspora relations is linked to a resurgence in optimism about the relationship between migration and development (De Haas, 2010; Faist, 2008; Gamlen, 2014; Skeldon, 2008; Spaan, Van Naerssen, & Hillmann, 2005).”

“…it is not universal: many recent studies see attempts to engage the diaspora as futile efforts to mitigate economic dependence by appealing to diaspora elites for investment (Dickinson & Bailey, 2007; Faist, 2008; Larner, 2007; Mullings, 2011; Pellerin & Mullings, 2013; Varadarajan, 2010) .”

“…achieve an international ‘win-win-win’ outcome from migration, in which migrants exercise the freedom to move and benefit themselves materially (De Haas & Plug, 2006; United Nations Development Programme, 2009), while destination states get cheap labor and skills (Massey et al., 1998: 28e29),…”

“…state and the legal status of migrants in that state, the relationship between home and host state, the role of international or regional organizations, and the specific international norms mediating aspects of the state-diaspora relationship (Brand, 2006, 2014; D elano, 2011; Waterbury, 2010a).”

“…it is not universal: many recent studies see attempts to engage the diaspora as futile efforts to mitigate economic dependence by appealing to diaspora elites for investment (Dickinson & Bailey, 2007; Faist, 2008; Larner, 2007; Mullings, 2011; Pellerin & Mullings, 2013; Varadarajan, 2010) .”

“…to the thickening of existing diaspora networks (Portes, Guarnizo, & Landolt, 1999), or attempting to engineer new diasporas for strategic purposes (Margheritis, 2007), such origin-state efforts to engage diasporas redefine the parameters of citizenship and of the state itself (Levitt & de la…”

“…investments and expertise of emigrants and their descendants (Goldring, 1998; Itzigsohn, 2000), while responding to the diaspora's growing claims for political and social rights (see inter alia Barry, 2006; Brand, 2006; Escobar, 2006; Fitzgerald, 2000; Green & Weil, 2007; Smith, 2003a; 2003b).”

“Some heads of state have proclaimed to govern on behalf of ‘their’ people living abroad, throwing glitzy celebrations for diaspora elites who they recast as national heroes instead of deserters (see inter alia Durand, 2004; Martinez-Salda~na, 2003; Nyiri, 2004; Østergaard-Nielsen, 2003).”

“…by U C LA Biom edical Library Serials user on 28 Septem ber 2018 2005), authorities routinely permeate borders in order to pursue threats and exercise some degree of “governmentality” over their citizens abroad (Gamlen 2014; see also Bauböck 2003; Délano and Gamlen 2014).”

“…2003; Kapur 2010; Margheritis 2015) to how sending states themselves attempt to manage and control emigration, expatriates, diasporas, and citizens abroad (Brand 2006; Adamson and Demetriou 2007; FitzGerald 2009; Varadarajan 2010; Naujoks 2013; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Margheritis 2015).”

“Our central aims are to articulate these three perspectives and then investigate empirical support for each perspective using broad-sample, cross-country statistical analyses called for in previous research (Délano and Gamlen 2014; Gamlen 2014a; Ragazzi 2014).”

“The politics of sending states and migration is attracting increased attention (Adamson and Demetriou, 2007; Collyer, 2013; De Haas, 2007; Délano and Gamlen, 2014; Fitzgerald, 2006; Gamlen et al., 2013; Hollifield, 2012; Kapur, 2010; Koinova, 2012, 2018a; Meseguer and Burgess, 2014; Mylonas 2012;…”

“…a result of growing academic interest in policies known as diaspora strategies, understood as the initiatives that migrant-sending states implement to mobilize their diasporas for national agendas (e.g. Larner, 2007; Ragazzi, 2009; Ho, 2011; Mullings, 2012; Délano and Gamlen, 2014; Cohen, 2017).”

“As Délano and Gamlen (2014) note, up to now, the field has been mostly dominated by single-case studies.”

“Concomitantly, other research documents how changing institutional contexts in origin and receiving societies enable immigrants to engage in transnational politics through policies such as dual citizenship and external voting (Bauböck 2003; Collyer 2014; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Gamlen 2008).”

“…the middle of the nineteenth century, states have politically engaged their diasporas as shown by research on Mexico (Délano 2011), Italy (Choate 2007) or Bismarck’s Germany (Manz 2014) and through comparative or synthesising studies (Délano and Gamlen 2014; Gamlen 2008; Meseguer and Burgess 2014).”

“…social science research typically considers noncitizen immigrants’ identity narratives through the lens of diasporic nationalism or transnationalism (Délano and Gamlen, 2014), but in Qatar and the UAE, noncitizens frequently exhibit a form of nationalist attachment to the country where they reside.”

“Indeed, transnational organisations and multiple identifications compel home states to position themselves and develop what is called ‘diaspora politics’ as a means of maintaining the loyalty of the citizens on both their territory of settlement and ‘abroad’ (Délano and Gamlen 2014).”

“The importance of migrant remittances is frequently identified in the extensive literature on state-diaspora relations (Délano and Gamlen 2014; Adamson 2017; Koinova 2014; Koinova and Tsourapas, forthcoming).”

“Delano and Gamlen (2014) mention the case of “transnational governmentality” that describes “home governments’ efforts to create and control diasporas, to mobilise national identities, and to implement measures that institutionalise the links between migrants”

“Scholars have also focused on external voting practices as well as other forms of diaspora engagement which aim at tapping into diaspora resources for economic and political reasons (Délano & Gamlen, 2014; Hartmann, 2015; Kapur, 2010).”

“A global revival of emigration and diaspora policies seems to be in full bloom, as many authors point to a growing number of countries worldwide that are engaging in this policy area (Gamlen 2008; Collyer 2013b; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Turcu and Urbatsch 2015).”

“Studies on diaspora policies directly or indirectly apply the ‘diaspora option’ approach in order to develop potential typologies and models for diaspora policies (Gamlen 2006, 2014; Tiwari 2013; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Ragazzi 2014).”

“Accounting for variation in ethnic return migration policy Group-level variation in ethnic return migration policy unsettles the baseline expectations of the two foundational arguments in diaspora research (Délano and Gamlen 2014, 45).”

“Gamlen (2014) situates the roots of diaspora-centred development in the emergence of a coherent but decentralized system of global governance in the area of international migration (see also Delano and Gamlen 2014).”

“73 In other words, the diaspora-development agenda is promoted despite the dearth of knowledge on actual mechanisms through which diaspora engagement substantially impacts homeland economies and societies (Gamlen et al. 2013; Dèlano & Gamlen 2014).”

“Diaspora strategies take their force and acquire legitimacy from constituting diasporic overseas populations as self-governing good partners and loyal extra-territorial members (Péllèrin and Mullings, 2013; Ragazzi, 2014; Délano and Gamlen, 2014).”

“…has steadily increased and diversified, the participation of non-resident citizens in homeland elections has gained increased visibility, following a globally widespread trend of enactment of external voting rights (Bauböck 2005; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Collyer 2017; Arrighi and Lafleur 2019).”

“This makes it particularly difficult to ‘count and categorize’ emigrants, which is key for making them part of the ‘governable population’ of the state (Delano and Gamlen, 2014: 49).”

“Diaspora politics does not thus always nourish individual – state connections (Délano & Gamlen, 2014).”

“…522–539, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2015.1065037 fostered mimetic policy developments by sending states (Dufoix, Guerassimoff, and De Tinguy 2010) to the extent that today most UN-registered states dedicate some of their resources to engaging with their diasporas (Gamlen and Delano 2014).”

“The concomitant rise of diaspora strategies globally marks a major shift in the history of state-emigrant relations (Pellerin & Mullings, 2013; Délano, 2014).”

“…as well as in the residence country (e.g. cultural centres, welfare services, legal service), and by attempting to strengthen their political voice and connection through migrant enfranchisement (Ragazzi 2014; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Smith 2003; Umpierrez de Reguero, Finn, Peltoniemi, 2023).”

“As noted by several authors, the state’s position on return migration and diaspora policy depends on perceptions of emigration (Boccagni 2011; Delano and Gamlen 2015; Sinatti 2015).”

“Remittance housing represents a key area of the “transnational state governmentality” (Collyer, 2006; Délano and Gamlen, 2014).”

“…complex coaction with its diaspora, diaspora organisations, and its own decentralised units reflects well Foucault’s ([1978] 1991) original conception of governmentality as ‘governing through pastoral power and the consent and self-discipline of the governed’ (Délano Alonso and Gamlen 2014, 49).”

“…as when migrant-sending states stand to benefit by using diaspora strategies to mobilize the resources of citizens or former citizens abroad (e.g. Délano and Gamlen 2014; Ho 2011), or when migrant-receiving states find it advantageous to offer long-term or permanent residency – a type of legal…”

“When Delano and Gamlen explained the Mexican state ’ s diaspora engagement policies and governance from the nineteenth century to today, they suggested a multilevel approach that takes into account domestic, transnational, and global factors (Délano and Gamlen, 2014; Délano, 2011).”

“…perspectives and theories, with considerable expansion of diaspora scholarship since the 1990s representing a move from diaspora as a static and essentialized notion of dispersed groups, maintaining distinctive identities to ‘an indicator of an identity in flux’ (Delano & Gamlen, 2014, p. 44).”

“…that there has been a rapid rise amongstmigrant sending states in the designing of strategies to engage their diaspora populations (Délano, 2014; Délano & Gamlen, 2014; Gamlen et al., 2013; Mylonas, 2013; Ragazzi, 2009, 2014, 2017); e.g. through extraterritorial voting rights or dual…”

“Scholars have started exploring such cross-country variations (Delano and Gamlen, 2014; Ragazzi, 2014).”

“…on ad hoc institutions, policies, and the bureaucratic apparatuses through which nation-states maintain political, economic, and religious ties with their respective communities abroad (Waldinger and Fitzgerald, 2004; Varadarajan, 2010; Délano and Gamlen, 2014; Adamson, 2019; Gamlen et al., 2019).”

“(Dufoix 2015: 9) Ang (2003: 141-154) states that the economic, political and cultural erosion of the modern nation-state as a result of postmodern capitalist globalization contributed to the current context of the diaspora.”

“In the Ukrainian example, the home state-diaspora relationship could be interpreted as both a form of long-distance ethnic nationalism suggested by Délano and Gamlen (2014, 45) and a part of the emergence of liberating post-national (Sassen 2002, 286; Tambini 2001, 200), supranational (Auvachez…”

“In this way, this article is a response to calls for diaspora research that explores non-elite actors and engages with multiple levels of social and political analysis (Délano Alonso and Mylonas 2019).”

“…2008; De Haas 2006; Gamlen 2006; Gamlen et al. 2013) remains a significant dimension in the migration–development nexus debate (De Haas 2012; Délano and Gamlen 2014; Faist 2008; Sørensen 2012), but the phenomenon has not received proper attention in the policy arenas of the diaspora’s…”

“Many states introduced ministries or sub-level institutions within their ministerial structures to deal with diasporas and use them as part of their public diplomacy strategies (Baser and Féron 2022; Délano and Gamlen 2014).”

“On the other hand, considerable research (e.g. Délano and Gamlen 2014; Levitt and de la Dehesa 2003; Waterbury 2010) emphasized that citizenship has increasingly been de-territorialized (Bloemraad 2004; Vertovec 2009), and that emigrant states provide former citizens and their kin with…”

“…engagements in virtual transnational social fields and participation(s) within various forms of diaspora tourism, thus being more likely to contribute to the ‘symbolic inclusion efforts’ of State governments and ‘symbolic nation-ness’ on a transnational level (Delano and Gamlen 2014; Pogonyi 2015).”

“…that looks at legal, economic and political policy options and by Cohen that organises diaspora into victim, labour, imperial, trade and cultural – to those that recast notions of governmentality to describe the relationship between emigration and diaspora strategies (Delano and Gamlen 2014).”

“…have helped in mounting political and social challenges, enabled entrepreneurial and light-touch tactic in fostering relations with local government bodies, and made diaspora less reliant on using less proxy tools to have their demands or grievances resolved (cf. Délano and Gamlen 2014).”

“But at the same time states of origin are in “search of their own people” (Delano and Gamlen 2014: 45).”

“…have been interested in how diaspora groups mobilize vis-à-vis their countries of origin (Baser, 2014, 2015; Kopchick et al., 2022; Sökefeld, 2006), and in how countries of origin try to harness their diasporas for political and economic reasons (Burgess, 2020; Délano & Gamlen, 2014; Gamlen, 2019).”