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Plastic contamination of a Galapagos Island (Ecuador) and the relative risks to native marine species
Open accessAbstract
Ecuador's Galapagos Islands and their unique biodiversity are a global conservation priority. We explored the presence, composition and environmental drivers of plastic contamination across the marine ecosystem at an island scale, investigated uptake in marine invertebrates and designed a systematic priority scoring analysis to identify the most vulnerable vertebrate species. Beach contamination varied by site (macroplastic 0–0.66 items·m−2, microplastics 0–448.8 particles·m−2 or 0–74.6 particles·kg−1), with high plastic accumulation on east-facing beaches that are influenced by the Humboldt Current. Local littering and waste management leakages accounted for just 2% of macroplastic. Microplastics (including anthropogenic cellulosics) were ubiquitous but in low concentrations in benthic sediments (6.7–86.7 particles·kg−1) and surface seawater (0.04–0.89 particles·m−3), with elevated concentrations in the harbour suggesting some local input. Microplastics were present in all seven marine invertebrate species examined, found in 52% of individuals (n = 123) confirming uptake of microplastics in the Galapagos marine food web. Priority scoring analysis combining species distribution information, IUCN Red List conservation status and literature evidence of harm from entanglement and ingestion of plastics in similar species identified 27 marine vertebrates in need of urgent, targeted monitoring and mitigation including pinnipeds, seabirds, turtles and sharks.
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“Recent studies have highlighted presence of microplastics in the archipelago [44, 45]”
From Modelling microplastic bioaccumulation and biomagnification potential in the Galápagos penguin ecosystem using Ecopath and Ecosim (EwE) with Ecotracer (2024) · cites this paper as [44]
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“This species faces several challenges from intense El Niño events and ocean warming [48, 49] to ocean plastics [44].”
From Modelling microplastic bioaccumulation and biomagnification potential in the Galápagos penguin ecosystem using Ecopath and Ecosim (EwE) with Ecotracer (2024) · cites this paper as [44]
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“In the case of MPs for example, despite being protected, the Galapagos islands still experience high levels of MP pollution with the great majority believed to be brought in by currents from South America (Jones et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSánchez-García, N., & Sanz‐Lázaro, C. (2023) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121310 · Cited by 47
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“However, assuming that these bottles come from the Galapagos Marine Reserve itself, local contamination would still represent less than 2% of all plastic bottles, which is consistent with estimates made by (Jones et al., 2021).”
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“The AMD abundance data reported here are much higher than the maximum average observed on beaches of the Galapagos Islands (i.e., 0.27 items/m2) by Jones et al. (2021), coastal sites in Spain with 0.06 items/m2 (AsensioMontesinos et al., 2020), and Mkomani beach in Kenya with 0.38 items/m2 (Okuku et al., 2021).”
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“…of marine wildlife interacting with plastic debris, with uptake of microplastics into the marine food web already reported within the Galapagos marine reserve (Jones et al., 2021), and several species have been identified as high risk of ingestion or entanglement (Mu ˜ noz-P ´ erez et al., 2023).”
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Vélez-Terreros, P. Y., Romero‐Estévez, D., & Yánez-Jácome, G. S. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23232 · Cited by 29
“Jones et al. [68] also reported seawater surface contamination due to MPs around the coast of San Cristobal in the Galapagos Islands, with a concentration of 0.89 particles ⋅ m (cid:0) 3 , with a major contribution of PP and PE fragments (32 %).”
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“Deep-sea mining activities can also impact ecologically important species and populations, including sperm whales’ squid prey, through habitat destruction and the production and resuspension of large, persistent sediment plumes, metals and toxic organic pollutants [69,78,79].”
Detection and quantification of microplastic pollution in the endangered Galapagos sea lion
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“Studies have also reported an abundance of plastics and microplastics around Ecuador's Galapagos Island of San Cristobal (Jones et al. 2021).”
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Botterell, Z. L. R., Ardren, J., Dove, E., McArthur, E., Addison, D. S., Adegbile, O. M., Agamboué, P. D., Agyekumhene, A., Allman, P., Alterman, A., et al. (2025) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.117768 · Cited by 12
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“Recent observations have identified 27 Galapagos marine vertebrates at high risk by exposure to microplastic contamination (Jones et al., 2021).”
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Savage, G., Jones, J. J., Muñoz‐Pérez, J. P., Lewis, C. N., & Galloway, T. S. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176659 · Cited by 8
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“The World Heritage Site of Galapagos receives pollution from oceanic currents, marine sources, and local pollution although the latter is scarce (Jones et al. 2021).”
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Invisible Invaders: Ecotoxicological Impacts of Nano‐ and Microplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems
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Concentrations of lead in pinniped bones confirm Galapagos as a relatively unpolluted environment
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“On some Ecuadorian continental and Galapagos Island beaches, litter is also deposited via the Humboldt Current (Gaibor et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2021).”
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“Information about the pollution of marine specially protected natural territories by MP in different parts of the world [23], including the Great Barrier Reef [20] and Galapagos Islands [21] appeared recently.”
BackgroundEscañan, A. S., Wang, M.-H., Acot, F. T., Perpetua, Z. D., Sajorne, R. E., Albarico, F. P. J. B., Chen, C., Dong, C., & Bacosa, H. P. (2025) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-025-14106-2 · Cited by 4
“Similarly, microplastics have been found on beaches and within marine species in UNESCO World Heritage Sites, such as the Galapagos Islands, raising concerns about their impact on unique biodiversity (Jones et al., 2021).”
Praet, E., Guézou, A., Schofield, J., & Tamoria, R. M. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary Archaeology · doi:10.1558/jca.25844 · Cited by 4
Bhuyan, M. S., Rashed-Un-Nabi, M., Alam, M. W., Islam, M. N., Cáceres-Farías, L., Bat, L., Musthafa, M. S., Senapathi, V., Chung, S. Y., & Alfaro‐Núñez, A. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1290795/v1 · Cited by 4
“…References Saccostrea palmula 0.71 ± 0.29 734– 1585 µm Digestive tract Fibres, fragments Galapagos Islands Jones et al. 2021 Holothuria kefersteini 0.99 ± 0.34 165.5 – 952 µm Digestive tract Fibres, fragments Galapagos Islands Jones et al. 2021 Dosidicus gigas 93% 150- 5000 µm Digestive tract…”
InfluentialNaranjo-Silva, S. (2024) · Scientia et technica · doi:10.22517/23447214.25344 · Cited by 3
Flor, D., Friant, M. C., Powell, T., Lewis, C. N., Charnley, F., & Galloway, T. S. (2025) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.146300 · Cited by 4
la Parra-Guerra, A. C. D., Barrios, R. L. A., Carvajal-Ruiz, A., Monroy‐Licht, A., & Chamorro, K. E. R. (2025) · Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry · doi:10.1093/etojnl/vgaf279 · Cited by 3
Buoninsegni, J., Anfuso, G., Tessari, U., Giro, V., Marrocchino, E., & Vaccaro, C. (2026) · Microplastics · doi:10.3390/microplastics5010015 · Cited by 4
“For each analytical set (three aliquots), a procedural blank consisting of 200 mL of high-density sodium chloride (NaCl) solution was processed with the sediment samples [73].”
Rapid spatiotemporal monitoring of beach microplastics in the Galápagos Islands
Savage, G., Guézou, A., Jones, J., Rea, L. D. M., López, M. L. B., Quinchiguango, S. H. P., Lewis, C. N., & Galloway, T. S. (2026) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.119344 · Cited by 3
Self-citationIsland Innovation: Transitioning Towards a Circular Economy for Plastics in Galápagos, Ecuador
Jones, J., Howard, J., Galloway, T. S., Crespo, L. N., & Aspinosa, S. (2023) · Social and ecological interactions in the Galapagos Islands · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-28089-4_30 · Cited by 3
Self-citationSmith, C. E., Gilby, B. L., van de Merwe, J. P., Jones, J., Tait, H. L., & Townsend, K. A. (2024) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.17313 · Cited by 3
“Marine debris is ubiquitous and is found even on the most remote shore-lines (Jones et al., 2021) and in the deepest parts of the ocean (Chiba et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImpacts of Microplastics on Marine Organisms and in Human HealthPreprint
Bhuyan, M. S., Nabi, M. R.-U., Alam, M. W., Islam, M. N., Cáceres-Farías, L., Bat, L., Musthafa, M. S., Chung, S. Y., Senapathi, V., & Alfaro‐Núñez, A. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-967159/v1 · Cited by 5
Savage, J., Harris, J. L., Koldewey, H. J., Letessier, T. B., Rowcliffe, J. M., & Morritt, D. (2025) · Conservation Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/csp2.70059 · Cited by 2
“These plastic debris affect the island ecosystems (Barnes et al., 2018; Garrard et al., 2024; Jones et al., 2021).”
Archibong, F. N., Orakwe, L. C., Ubah, J. I., Okafor, V. C., & Mbam, S. O. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13762-025-06706-9 · Cited by 2
“Submarine species such as jumbos, harpies, seagulls, turtles, and pinni-peds have been observed to perish due to consuming plastic debris and traps generated by the buildup of rubber waste in the water (Li et al. 2016; Godswill and Gospel 2019; Jones et al. 2021).”
Zanetti, D. G., Gomes, L. E. D. O., Bom, F. C., & Sá, F. (2025) · Regional Studies in Marine Science · doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2025.104590 · Cited by 2
Microplastic pollution in an endangered Galapagos pinniped: A comprehensive regional assessment
Moreira‐Mendieta, A., Garcia‐Garin, O., Vivas-Vaca, W., Urquía, D. O., Drago, M., Ochoa‐Herrera, V., Riofrío‐Lazo, M., Borrell, A., & Páez‐Rosas, D. (2026) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2026.127840 · Cited by 2
Mapping marine debris hotspots on Boa Vista Island, Cabo Verde
Sousa‐Guedes, D., Sillero, N., Abu-Raya, M., Marco, A., & Bessa, F. (2025) · Marine Pollution Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.117823 · Cited by 2
A Degrowth-Oriented Circular Society for Plastics
Friant, M. C., & Chakori, S. (2025) · Springer handbooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-66209-6_58 · Cited by 2
Praet, E., & Guézou, A. (2025) · Cambridge Archaeological Journal · doi:10.1017/s0959774325000095 · Cited by 1
“The importance of mainland and marine sources coincides with the estimates of minor (land) local input provided by Jones et al. (2021) for San Cristobal.”
InfluentialMicro- and Nanoplastics—Impact on Marine Vertebrates and Invertebrates
Tandel, B. R., Mayur, T., Tushar, D., Tandel, V. R., Mitul, T., Nehal, T., Tandel, R. A., Timbadia, S., Varsha, L., & Bhoomi, P. (2025) · Sustainable development goals series · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-5047-7_14 · Cited by 1
Assis, L. F. D. S., Pereira, L. C. C., da Silva, B. R. P., de Souza, I. N., Peña-Villacreses, G., Luz, J. M. P., Pereira, R. L. M. D. C., & da Costa, R. M. (2025) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2025.115106 · Cited by 1
Llerena, P. D., Cárdenas-Campoverde, H., Mena, C. F., & Cárdenas, S. A. (2025) · Environmental Challenges · doi:10.1016/j.envc.2025.101341 · Cited by 2
Microplastic pollution in UNESCO world natural heritage sites: A global integrative review
Carvalho, É. P. B., Rodrigues, A. S. D. L., da Luz, T. M., & Malafaia, G. (2026) · Journal of Coastal Conservation · doi:10.1007/s11852-026-01207-4 · Cited by 1
“In contrast, invertebrates and zooplankton remain clearly underrepresented, as do explicitly multi-taxon investigations, which are primarily restricted to a limited number of estuarine or coastal systems (Jones et al. 2021; Meyer et al. 2022).”
Zobkov, M., & Ефремова, Т. А. (2023) · Водные ресурсы · doi:10.31857/s0321059623030148 · Cited by 1
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0006 · Cited by 1
Understanding the Sources of Marine Litter in Remote Islands: The Galapagos Islands as a Case StudyPreprint
Benito-Kaesbach, A., Suárez-Moncada, J., Velastegui, A., Moreno-Mendoza, J., Vera-Zambrano, M., Avendaño, U., Ryan, P. G., & Sanz‐Lázaro, C. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4610823
A Global Synthesis of Microplastic Densities and Stocks in the Marine EnvironmentPreprint
Walton, M. E. M., Wedinger, M., Mason, V. G., Paler, M. K. O., Buque‐Taboada, E. M., Skov, M. W., & Hiddink, J. G. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4614649
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0005 · Cited by 1
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.002.0003
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.002.0007
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0003
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0008
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0007
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0002
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.003.0004
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.002.0005
Schofield, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192844880.002.0004
Metadata
- Authors
- Jones, J. S., Porter, A., Muñoz-Pérez, J. P., Alarcón-Ruales, D., Galloway, T. S., Godley, B. J., Santillo, D., Vagg, J., & Lewis, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Exeter (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Lewis, Ceri
- Venue
- Science of The Total Environment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-10
- Volume
- 789
- Pages
- 147704
- ISSN
- 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3161752573
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 6
- FWCI
- 4.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Greater South Information System
- Funders
- Royal Geographical Society
- Natural Environment Research Council
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Turtle Biology and Conservation
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Coastal Fisheries and Human Impacts
- Keywords
- plastic pollution, microplastics, macroplastics, Galápagos Islands, marine invertebrates, plastic ingestion, entanglement, Humboldt Current, beach litter, benthic sediments, marine food webs, marine vertebrates, pinnipeds, seabirds, sea turtles, sharks, marine conservation
- MeSH terms
- Ecuador, Environmental Monitoring, Plastics, Risk, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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