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Characterisation of source-separated, rigid plastic waste and evaluation of recycling initiatives: Effects of product design and source-separation system
Open accessAbstract
Recycling of plastic from household waste (HHW) is crucial in the transition towards a circular plastic economy. Plastic from HHW consists of numerous immiscible polymers, product types and product designs (e.g. colour, polymer separability), which often lead to considerable physical losses during sorting, and low-quality recycled plastic. Consequently, recycling initiatives have been proposed to enhance the quantity and quality of plastic recycling from HHW. To quantify the potential effects of such initiatives, a detailed composition of plastic waste is necessary. The aim was to provide such detailed composition of Danish source-separated rigid plastic waste, including information regarding the polymer of the main product component, product type, polymer design and separability as well as colour. The potential effects on recycled quantity and quality from implementing selected recycling initiatives were quantified and recommendations provided. PET, PE and PP made up >90% of the source-separated plastic and both food- and non-food packaging existed in all three polymers. In total, 10-11% of the plastic was black, and around 44% consisted of multiple polymers, of which one-third was non-separable. Initiatives improving product design for recycling will likely result in increased quantity of recycled plastic. By effectively separating food from non-food packaging, e.g. by introducing two bins in the households or politically aligning polymers and product types (all food packaging in PET and PP, all non-food packaging in PE), 39-63% of the waste could potentially be recycled in a closed loop into food-grade quality packaging. The overall highest benefits were reached by combining initiatives.
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“If multi-polymers have to be used, Eriksen and Astrup (2019) suggested to design individual and separable components, such as modular design, in which case, components made from multi-polymers can be separated and sorted during recycling.”
From Packaging design for the circular economy: A systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as Eriksen and Astrup (2019)
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“However, nowadays 10-11 % of the PET, PP and PE plastics used in packaging is black (Eriksen and Astrup, 2019).”
From Packaging design for the circular economy: A systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as Eriksen and Astrup, 2019
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“…food-grade recycling according to EFSA standards [37]. of rigid PET packaging accounts for food Austrian separate waste collection, which matches the results obtained (2019), with more than 80% in Denmark [25], which is a relevant finding food-grade recycling according to EFSA standards [37].”
BackgroundResultPerceptions and alignment on quality along the circular plastics packaging material chain
Molenbuur, M., van Eijk, M. C. P., Urbanus, J. H., Diepenmaat, H. B., & Ragaert, K. (2025) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2025.114758 · Cited by 7
“Existing quality definitions in studies on waste management seem to focus on the composition of the waste stream (Eriksen and Astrup, 2019; Roosen et al., 2022), whereas studies on recycling focus more on material properties, such as mechanical, processing, and physical properties (Boz Noyan et…”
Ecotoxicity of PM10 emissions generated during controlled burning of waste PET
Kováts, N., Hubai, K., Sainnokhoi, T.-A., Eck‐Varanka, B., Hoffer, A., Tóth, Á., & Teke, G. (2023) · Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.etap.2023.104118 · Cited by 7
Apevienyeku, H. K., Ampofo, J., Amoako, J. A., Jodeit, F., Siraj, K. T., Eblenkamp, M., & Mela, P. (2025) · Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management · doi:10.1007/s10163-025-02192-w · Cited by 6
“Eriksen et al. [15] collected household waste to characterize the recy-clate but did not focus on high-grade plastics like medical plastic waste.”
Rajpurohit, K., Shaikh, S. A., Pandey, A. K., & Bagla, H. K. (2025) · Hybrid Advances · doi:10.1016/j.hybadv.2025.100555 · Cited by 6
González-Fuenzalida, R. A., & Campíns-Falcó, P. (2024) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140627 · Cited by 5
PHOENIX: Towards a circular economy of plasmix waste—A systemic design approach
Fiore, E., & Tamborrini, P. M. (2024) · Circular Economy · doi:10.1016/j.cec.2024.100075 · Cited by 5
Bolong, N., Saad, I., Asman, N. S. A., Choong, W. H., & Roslan, Z. (2024) · MATEC Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/matecconf/202439703005 · Cited by 6
Jian, X., Liu, Y., Ye, Z., & Chen, W. (2024) · Waste Management & Research The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy · doi:10.1177/0734242x241265055 · Cited by 5
“To overcome this challenge, Denmark has implemented several recycling policies to overcome this obstacle, such as rigid and soft plastic recycling in 2012 and 2017 (Eriksen and Astrup, 2019).”
Tumurbaatar, S., Kováts, N., Eck‐Varanka, B., Teke, G., & Hubai, K. (2025) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos16020164 · Cited by 8
“PET has become the most used material for food and beverage packaging [31] but also represents an important share of household waste [32].”
Chen, A., Saxena, S., Samaras, V. G., & Dally, B. B. (2026) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym18101256 · Cited by 4
“Evolved gas analysis confirms that this high-temperature step is due to CaCO 3 filler decomposition, which releases CO 2 [72].”
Technical Recyclability and Carbon Footprint of Packaging for Butter, Yogurt, and Spreads
Klein, M., Neumair, C., Tacker, M., & Apprich, S. (2025) · Recycling · doi:10.3390/recycling10020031 · Cited by 4
“Furthermore, the considerable diversity of packaging types, materials, dimensions, shapes, manufacturing processes, and chemical compositions represents a significant challenge [21].”
Yadav, H., Okoffo, E. D., Caro, D., Galli, A., & Iskander, S. M. (2025) · ACS Sustainable Resource Management · doi:10.1021/acssusresmgt.5c00185 · Cited by 3
William Arthur dos Santos de, L. I. M. A., Sousa, A. C. D. A., Brabo, D. R., Lopes, J. L., & Dias, C. G. B. T. (2022) · Matéria (Rio de Janeiro) · doi:10.1590/1517-7076-rmat-2022-0160 · Cited by 4
Poirier, L., Timken, H., & López-Linares, F. (2024) · Processes · doi:10.3390/pr12112339 · Cited by 3
A novel design on polymeric material recycling technology
Tanrıver, K., Dilibal, S., Sahin, H., & Kentli, A. (2021) · Acta Scientiarum. Technology/Acta scientiarum. Technology · doi:10.4025/actascitechnol.v43i1.56211 · Cited by 3
“Raw material recycling, which covers a range of technologies that can be multi-layered and composite plastics (Eriksen & Astrup, 2019), low-quality, poorly separated plastic piles, and attractive recovery solutions for food and soilcontaminated plastic wastes, aims to turn these plastics and some…”
BackgroundAkhras, M. H., Langwieser, J., & Fischer, J. (2023) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0168283 · Cited by 3
Simanovska, J., & Belousa, I. (2025) · Waste Management & Research The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy · doi:10.1177/0734242x251346671 · Cited by 2
“Research highlights the importance of separate waste collection for increasing recycling rates (Eriksen and Astrup, 2019).”
Thongham, N., Khongprom, P., & Sangsubun, C. (2025) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d5ra03620h · Cited by 2
Gadaleta, G., Sorrentino, A., Oliviero, M., & Gisi, S. D. (2026) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma19040682 · Cited by 2
“Both mechanical and chemical recycling research should use realistic inputs and should report characterization in a way that supports comparability across studies [27,28].”
Kladnik, V., Schwarzböck, T., & Dworak, S. (2025) · Waste Management · doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2025.115052 · Cited by 2
Gabriel, D. S., & Nasrullah, H. (2021) · Materials science forum · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1020.199 · Cited by 2
An Experimental Study on the Properties of Recycled High-Density Polyethylene
Toroslu, A. G. (2021) · International polymer processing · doi:10.1515/ipp-2020-4071 · Cited by 1
A Sustainable Material for Sheep’s Cheese Wedges Stored under Different Atmosphere Conditions
Nájera, A. I., Murua, M., Martínez, O., Albisu, M., & Barrón, L. J. R. (2024) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods13091423 · Cited by 1
“Develop-Foods Foods 2024 , 13 , 1423 2 of 16 ing food-grade recycled materials implies a close control of the raw materials and their processing [9–11].”
BackgroundGazeau, B., Zaman, A. U., Minunno, R., & Shaikh, F. U. A. (2025) · Cleaner Engineering and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.clet.2025.101119 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Eriksen, M. K., & Astrup, T. F.
- Affiliations
- Technical University of Denmark (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Eriksen, M.K.
- Venue
- Waste Management
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-03
- Volume
- 87
- Pages
- 161-172
- ISSN
- 0956-053X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2914817600
- Cited by
- 124
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 10.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- orbit.dtu.dk
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
- Locations
- Waste Management (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Technical University of Denmark, DTU Orbit (Technical University of Denmark, DTU) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Danish Environmental Agency
- Technical University of Denmark
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Municipal Solid Waste Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Waste Management and Recycling
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Microplastics and Plastic Pollution
- Keywords
- source separation, household waste, plastic recycling, design for recycling, food packaging, PET, polyethylene, polypropylene, black plastics, recycling programs, circular economy, closed-loop recycling
- MeSH terms
- Plastics, Polymers, Product Packaging, Recycling
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