The DOI matches its Crossref record; 105 of the 110 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Interpersonal functioning among women reporting a history of childhood sexual abuse: empirical findings and methodological issues
Abstract
A subset of research exploring the long-term impact of child sexual abuse (CSA) has examined the adult interpersonal functioning of female survivors. The present review discusses empirical findings and critical methodological issues related to this important but often overlooked aspect of adult adjustment. Though characterized by several methodological limitations, this literature, as a whole, suggests that early sexual abuse represents a risk factor for a range of interpersonal dysfunction among female survivors, including problems with intimate partner relations, disturbed sexual functioning, and difficulties in the parental role. Suggested methodological improvements for future research include new approaches to the measurement of CSA and interpersonal variables, the need for comprehensive assessment of significant third variables, and the use of more representative sampling strategies.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“However, given that betrayal traumas are associated with more disrupted interpersonal relationships relative to other trauma exposures (e.g. DiLillo, 2001; DiMauro, Renshaw, & Blais, 2018; Golding, Wilsnack, & Cooper, 2002), meta-analyses focused on trauma in general may not accurately reflect the relation between social support and PTSD for betrayal trauma survivors.”
From The association between social support and posttraumatic stress symptoms among survivors of betrayal trauma: a meta-analysis (2021) · cites this paper as DiLillo, 2001
Citations
Cites
Measuring Dyadic Adjustment: New Scales for Assessing the Quality of Marriage and Similar Dyads
Spanier, G. B. (1976) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.2307/350547 · Cited by 7,095
Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research.
Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.99.1.66 · Cited by 2,718
The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse: A conceptualization.
Finkelhor, D., & Browne, A. (1985) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1985.tb02703.x · Cited by 1,891
Measuring Marital Quality: A Critical Look at the Dependent Variable
Norton, R. W. (1983) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.2307/351302 · Cited by 1,802
Assessment of social adjustment by patient self report.
Weissman, M. M. (1976) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1976.01770090101010 · Cited by 1,782
Finkelhor, D., Hotaling, G., Lewis, I. A., & Smith, C. (1990) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90077-7 · Cited by 1,754 · cited 1×
“This proposition is supported by consistent evidence of elevated rates of separation and divorce found in community samples of CSA survivors (Finkelhor et al., 1990; Mullen, Martin, Anderson, Romans, & Herbison, 1994; Russell 1986).”
ResultHerman, J. L., & Hirschman, L. (1977) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-2820-3_50 · Cited by 1,548
A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse
Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., daCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E. (1992) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90011-f · Cited by 1,378
The reality of repressed memories.
Loftus, E. F. (1993) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.48.5.518 · Cited by 1,296
The incidence and prevalence of intrafamilial and extrafamilial sexual abuse of female children.
Russell, D. (1983) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(83)90065-0 · Cited by 1,071
The Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women.
Breines, W., & Russell, D. E. H. (1987) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069807 · Cited by 1,057
A sourcebook on child sexual abuse
Finkelhor, D. (1987) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/0047-2352(87)90085-7 · Cited by 1,038
Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse.
Williams, L. M. (1994) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.62.6.1167 · Cited by 947
Long-term correlates of child sexual abuse: Theory and review of the empirical literature
Polusny, M. A., & Follette, V. M. (1995) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0962-1849(05)80055-1 · Cited by 812
Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse
Finkelhor, D. (1994) · The Future of Children · doi:10.2307/1602522 · Cited by 804
Lasting Effects of Child Sexual Abuse
Wyatt, G. E., & Powell, G. J. (1988) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 667
The Persisting Negative Effects of Incest
Gelinas, D. J. (1983) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.1983.11024207 · Cited by 584
Early and long-term effects of child sexual abuse: An update.
Finkelhor, D. (1990) · Professional Psychology Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/0735-7028.21.5.325 · Cited by 562
Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1987) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626058700200403 · Cited by 531
Effect of incest on self and social functioning: A developmental psychopathology perspective.
Cole, P. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.174 · Cited by 528
Cumulative trauma: The impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse
Follette, V. M., Polusny, M. A., Bechtle, A. E., & Naugle, A. E. (1996) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02116831 · Cited by 514
Methodological issues in the study of sexual abuse effects.
Briere, J. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.60.2.196 · Cited by 493
Application of attachment theory to the study of sexual abuse.
Alexander, P. C. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.60.2.185 · Cited by 477
Fink, L., Bernstein, D. P., Handelsman, L., Foote, J. P., & Lovejoy, M. (1995) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.152.9.1329 · Cited by 453
Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse and subsequent risk of HIV infection.
Zierler, S., Feingold, L., Laufer, D., Velentgas, P., Kantrowitz‐Gordon, I., & Mayer, K. H. (1991) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.81.5.572 · Cited by 432
Fromuth, M. E. (1986) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(86)90026-8 · Cited by 425
Functional Analytic Psychotherapy : Creating Intense and Curative Therapeutic Relationships
Kohlenberg, R. J., & Tsai, M. (2012) · Cited by 423
Crowell, J. A., & Feldman, S. S. (1988) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130490 · Cited by 418
Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma
Follette, V. M., Ruzek, J. I., & Abueg, F. R. (1998) · Cited by 404
David Finkelhor, B., & Dzuiba-Leatherman, J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.49.3.173 · Cited by 386
Widom, C. S., & Kuhns, J. B. (1996) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.86.11.1607 · Cited by 386
Behavior Problems in Sexually Abused Young Children
Friedrich, W. N., Urquiza, A. J., & BEILKE, R. L. (1986) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/11.1.47 · Cited by 370
Nash, M. R., Hulsey, T. L., Sexton, M. C., Harralson, T. L., & Lambert, W. E. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.61.2.276 · Cited by 368
Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Evidence Based Perspective
Fergusson, D. M., & Mullen, P. E. (1999) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452205540 · Cited by 359
Maternal support following disclosure of incest.
Everson, M. D., Hunter, W. M., Runyon, D. K., Edelsohn, G. A., & Coulter, M. L. (1989) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb01651.x · Cited by 348
Cloître, M., Scarvalone, P., & Difede, J. (1997) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1024893305226 · Cited by 338
Incest: A Psychological Study of Causes and Effects with Treatment Recommendations
Meiselman, K. C. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 333
Long-term effects of sexual victimization in childhood: An attributional approach.
Gold, E. R. (1986) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.54.4.471 · Cited by 315
Child sexual abuse and its relationship to revictimization in adult women: A review
Messman, T. L. (1996) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(96)00019-0 · Cited by 312
The Effect of Child Sexual Abuse on Social, Interpersonal and Sexual Function in Adult Life
Mullen, P. E., Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., & Herbison, P. (1994) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.165.1.35 · Cited by 302
Gidycz, C. A., Hanson, K., & Layman, M. J. (1995) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00276.x · Cited by 295
The Trauma of Child Sexual Abuse
Finkelhor, D. (1987) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626058700200402 · Cited by 285
The victimization of children: A developmental perspective.
David Finkelhor, B. (1995) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/h0079618 · Cited by 253
Carroll, E. M., Rueger, D. B., Foy, D. W., & Donahoe, C. P. (1985) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.94.3.329 · Cited by 248
Tsai, M., Feldman‐Summers, S., & Edgar, M. (1979) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.88.4.407 · Cited by 247
Child Abuse Potential Inventory
Milner, J. S., & Wimberley, R. C. (1979) · PsycTESTS Dataset · doi:10.1037/t65940-000 · Cited by 227
Harter, S. L., Alexander, P. C., & Neimeyer, R. A. (1988) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.56.1.5 · Cited by 225
Beyond sexual abuse: Therapy with women who were childhood victims.
Jehu, D., Gazan, M., & Klassen, C. (1989) · Wiley eBooks · Cited by 223
Predictors and Correlates of Anger toward and Punitive Control of Toddlers by Adolescent Mothers
Crockenberg, S. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130537 · Cited by 223
Risk factors for child sexual abuse
FINKELHOR, D., & BARON, L. (1986) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626086001001004 · Cited by 212
Conspiracy of Silence: The Trauma of Incest.
Ruch, L. O., & Butler, S. S. (1981) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2066907 · Cited by 211
The Effects of Sexual Abuse on Children
Conte, J. R., & Schuerman, J. R. (1987) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626058700200404 · Cited by 209
Banyard, V. L. (1997) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00068-9 · Cited by 192
Therapy groups for women sexually molested as children
Tsai, M., & Wagner, N. N. (1978) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01542487 · Cited by 185
Courtois, C. A. (1988) · Cited by 184
The Incest Experience and Its Aftermath
Courtois, C. A. (1979) · Cited by 181
Asking about child sexual abuse: Methodological implications of a two stage survey
Martin, J., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., Mullen, P. E., & O'shea, M. L. (1993) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(93)90061-9 · Cited by 179
Linking childhood sexual abuse and abusive parenting: the mediating role of maternal anger
DiLillo, D., Tremblay, G. C., & Peterson, L. (2000) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00138-1 · Cited by 155
Self-citationBriere, J., & Elliott, D. M. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.61.2.284 · Cited by 155
Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Females: Toward a Developmental, Psychobiological Integration
Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1993) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00465.x · Cited by 152
Young, K. G., Weissman, M. M., & Paykel, E. S. (1975) · The Family Coordinator · doi:10.2307/582305 · Cited by 152
Parenting difficulties among adult survivors of father daughter incest
Cole, P. M., Woolger, C., Power, T. G., & Smith, K. D. (1992) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(92)90031-l · Cited by 146
Young adult women who report childhood intrafamilial sexual abuse: Subsequent adjustment
Jackson, J. L., Calhoun, K. S., Amick‐McMullan, A., Maddever, H. M., & Habif, V. L. (1990) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf01541547 · Cited by 143
Social adjustment in victims of sexual assault.
Resick, P. A., Calhoun, K. S., Atkeson, B. M., & Ellis, E. M. (1981) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.49.5.705 · Cited by 142
Child sexual abuse: The initial effects
Kendall-Tackett, K. A. (1991) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(91)90076-p · Cited by 138
Sexually abused children in a national survey of parents: Methodological issues
Finkelhor, D., Moore, D., Hamby, S. L., & Straus, M. A. (1997) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(96)00127-5 · Cited by 135
Parenting behaviors of women who were sexually abused as children in their families of origin
BURKETT, L. P. (1991) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1991.00421.x · Cited by 129
Perceptions of Couple Functioning Among Female Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse
DiLillo, D., & Long, P. J. (1999) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1300/j070v07n04_05 · Cited by 124
Self-citationMethodological issues in child sexual abuse research
Haugaard, J. J., & Emery, R. E. (1989) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(89)90032-x · Cited by 117
Hunter, J. (1991) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626091006002005 · Cited by 116
Functional Analytic Psychotherapy: Creating Intense and Curative Therapeutic Relationships
Hoover, H. (1991) · Cited by 109
Sroufe, L. A., Jacobvitz, D. B., Mangelsdorf, S. C., DeAngelo, E., & Ward, M. J. (1985) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1985.tb00108.x · Cited by 104
Greenwald, E., Leitenberg, H., Cado, S., & Tarran, M. J. (1990) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90099-f · Cited by 101
Motherhood among incest survivors
Cohen, T. (1995) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)80760-5 · Cited by 96
Edwards, J. J., & Alexander, P. C. (1992) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626092007003002 · Cited by 95
Incest: A psychological study of causes and effects with treatment recommendations
Friedrich, W. N. (1979) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/0190-7409(79)90011-2 · Cited by 91
Incest and Sexuality: A Guide to Understanding and Healing
Maltz, W., & Holman, B. (1987) · Cited by 85
Sroufe, L. A., Jacobvitz, D. B., Mangelsdorf, S. C., DeAngelo, E., & Ward, M. J. (1985) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1129722 · Cited by 81
Prior childhood sexual abuse in mothers of sexually abused children
Oates, R. K., Tebbutt, J., Swanston, H. Y., Lynch, D., & O’Toole, B. I. (1998) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00091-x · Cited by 78
Incest and Sexuality: A Guide to Understanding and Healing
Shainess, N. (1988) · American Journal of Psychotherapy · doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1988.42.3.499a · Cited by 77
Cole, P. M., & Woolger, C. (1989) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(89)90081-1 · Cited by 76
Controlling for Family Variables in Abuse Effects Research
Briere, J. (1988) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626088003001006 · Cited by 72
Herman‐Giddens, M. E. (1988) · American journal of diseases of children · doi:10.1001/archpedi.1988.02150040085025 · Cited by 70
Childhood sexual experiences: Problems and issues in studying long‐range effects
Kilpatrick, A. C. (1987) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224498709551356 · Cited by 49
Yates, A. (1982) · Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)60899-2 · Cited by 49
Child extrafamilial sexual abuse: predicting parent and child functioning1
Manion, I. G., Firestone, P., Cloutier, P., Ligezinska, M., McIntyre, J., & Ensom, R. (1998) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00103-3 · Cited by 47
Bart, P. B., Weissman, M. M., & Paykel, E. S. (1976) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2063789 · Cited by 39
Emotional Concerns and Treatment of Male Partners of Female Sexual Abuse Survivors
Chauncey, S. (1994) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/39.6.669 · Cited by 33
Living with a Female Sexual Abuse Survivor: Male Partners' Perspectives
Bacon, B. L., & Lein, L. (1996) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1300/j070v05n02_01 · Cited by 31
Nash, M. R., Neimeyer, R. A., Hulsey, T. L., & Lambert, W. E. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.66.3.568 · Cited by 27
Working with Adult Incest Survivors the Healing Journey
Kirschner, S. A., Kirschner, D. A., & Rappaport, R. L. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315784199 · Cited by 27
Healing interpersonal trauma with the intimacy of the therapeutic relationship.
Kohlenberg, R. J., & Tsai, M. (1998) · Cited by 27
Interviewing for sexual abuse: Reliability and effect of interviewer gender
Fry, R. P. W., Rozewicz, L., & Crisp, A. H. (1996) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00060-9 · Cited by 26
Mackey, T. F., Hacker, S. S., Weissfeld, L. A., Ambrose, N. C., Fisher, M. G., & Zobel, D. L. (1991) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.3109/01612849109058212 · Cited by 25
Consequences of Rape: Clinical and Treatment Aspects
Nadelson, C. C. (2010) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000288155 · Cited by 18
Mezey, G. (1990) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/s0007125000179887 · Cited by 17
The Child Abuse Potential Inventory
Diaz, B. N., & Temares, A. E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85493-5_1859-1 · Cited by 17
Working with Adult Incest Survivors: The Healing Journey
Schlesinger, B., Kirschner, S. A., Kirschner, D. A., & Rappaport, R. L. (1993) · Family Relations · doi:10.2307/585353 · Cited by 15
Groups for Significant Others of Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse
BRITTAIN, D. E., & Merriam, K. (1988) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626088003001007 · Cited by 12
LUBELL, A. K. N., & Peterson, C. (1998) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626098013002002 · Cited by 12
Marital therapy for sexual abuse survivors
Follette, V. M. (1991) · New Directions for Mental Health Services · doi:10.1002/yd.23319915107 · Cited by 11
Child Sexual Abuse: Initial Effects
Kelley, S. J. (1995) · Annual Review of Nursing Research · doi:10.1891/0739-6686.13.1.63 · Cited by 10
Childbearing Patterns in a Cohort of Women Sexually Abused as Children
Herman‐Giddens, M. E., Kotch, J. B., Browne, D. C., Ruina, E., Winsor, J., Jung, J.-W., & Stewart, P. W. (1998) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626098013004006 · Cited by 7
Male partners of female victims of child sexual abuse: Treatment issues and approaches
Firth, M. T. (1997) · Sexual and Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/02674659708408158 · Cited by 5
Characteristics of male partners of adult female incest survivors
Lambourn-Kavcic, B., & Day, H. D. (1995) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/bf02306570 · Cited by 4
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.018 · Cited by 910
Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3661-4_2 · Cited by 832
The role of childhood sexual abuse sequelae in the sexual revictimization of women
Messman-Moore, T. L., & Long, P. J. (2003) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(02)00203-9 · Cited by 484
Resilience Processes in Development
Wright, M. O., & Masten, A. S. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-48572-9_2 · Cited by 487
Riggs, S. A. (2010) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926770903475968 · Cited by 336
Metadata
- Authors
- DiLillo, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln (US)
- Corresponding author
- DiLillo, David
- ORCID
- DiLillo, David
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 553-576
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2109035256
- Cited by
- 314
- References
- 110
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 1.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lincoln (University of Nebraska) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Military, Security, and Education Studies
- Keywords
- child sexual abuse, women survivors, interpersonal functioning, intimate relationships, sexual dysfunction, parenting challenges, adult adjustment, third variable, sample representativeness
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Child, Child Abuse, Sexual, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Personality Development, Psychosexual Development, Risk Factors, Sexual Behavior, Social Adjustment, Women's Health, Parenting, Survivors, Crime Victims
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review