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Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange
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“Ethnographic parallels such as the xharo network among the !Kung (Ju/'hoansi) in southern Africa indicate that wearing particular beads signals membership of mutual assistance networks, where members exchange information about technological innovations and the whereabouts of animals and plants in a ritualized context (Wiessner, 2002).”
From The Challenge of Evolution to Religion (2019) · cites this paper as Wiessner, 2002
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“Kung (Ju/’hoansi) in southern Africa indicate that wearing particular beads signals membership of mutual assistance networks, where members exchange information about technological innovations and the whereabouts of animals and plants in a ritualized context (Wiessner, 2002).”
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“They also have a ceremonial gift exchange system that cements ties of friendship with people living in distant camps (Wiessner 2002).”
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“However, while males and females may aid kin in different ways, they are equally capable of nepotistic behaviors (e.g., Crocombe, 1978; Wiessner, 2002) that can contribute to inclusive fitness late into life.”
BackgroundGOOD LAMALERA WHALE HUNTERS ACCRUE REPRODUCTIVE BENEFITS
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“The cooperative big game hunting adaptation in ethnographic food foragers relies upon social institutions for risk pooling to mitigate risks of food shortfalls (Winterhalder 1986, Hawkes, O’Connell, and Blurton Jones 2001, Wiessner 2002).”
BackgroundAn often overlooked resource: Ostrich (Struthio spp.) eggshell in the archaeological record
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“…that subsistence practices among Upper and Lower Paleolithic hunter-gatherer populations would have begun at a relatively young age as well, as skillsets affiliated with foraging, and especially hunting, require both strength and experience (Hewlett and Cavalli-Sforza, 1986; Wiessner, 2002).”
BackgroundChaboo, C. S., Biesele, M., Hitchcock, R. K., & Weeks, A. (2016) · ZooKeys · doi:10.3897/zookeys.558.5957 · Cited by 26
Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers, Ethnoarchaeology, and Analogical Reasoning
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Russell, T. (2017) · Journal of Social Archaeology · doi:10.1177/1469605317701596 · Cited by 25
“…making and maintaining social bonds – something that is complementary to already existing hunter-gatherers systems of exchange and sharing (see Lee’s (1972) description of Hxaro exchange networks, Kent’s (1993) discussion of the social value of sharing and Wiessner (2002) on Hxaro and reciprocity).”
BackgroundShodagor women cooperate across domains of work and childcare to solve an adaptive problem
Starkweather, K. E., Reynolds, A. Z., Zohora, F., & Alam, N. (2022) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0433 · Cited by 25
“Additionally, while our model focuses on predicting women’s cooperative childcare relationships (i.e. we are not explicitly testing what explains women’s cooperative work ties), the model result showing that women overlap work and childcare ties offers some preliminary support for Wiessner’s and Bleige Bird and collea…”
BackgroundInfluentialDevelopment + Social Selection in the Emergence of “Emotionally Modern” Humans
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“A quantitative approach showed that good hunters had (a) more reproductive success than poor hunters, (b) more exchange partners than poor hunters, and (c) had more adult married siblings who may assist with alloparenting than poor hunters (Wiessner 2002).”
BackgroundThe cognitive challenges of cooperation in human and nonhuman animals
Melis, A. P., & Raihani, N. (2023) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-023-00207-7 · Cited by 28
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“Our second finding echoes those of previous descriptive research on small-scale societies: high social status typically leads to higher total fertility and survivorship due to preferential access to resources during times of need (Boone, 1998; Patton, 2005; Sugiyama & Chacon, 2000; Wiessner, 2002).”
ResultPreludes to Power in the Highland Late Preceramic Period
Aldenderfer, M. S. (2005) · Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association · doi:10.1525/ap3a.2005.14.013 · Cited by 23
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McAndrew, F. T. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_3483 · Cited by 23
Lupo, K. D., Schmitt, D. N., & Madsen, D. B. (2020) · Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12520-020-01146-7 · Cited by 21
“Hunters may target these prey to enhance prestige, build social and/or political alliances, or gain mating opportunities (Hawkes et al. 1991, 2010; Sosis 2000; Hawkes and Bliege Bird 2002; Wiessner 2002; Smith 2004; Bird et al. 2009, 2012; Lupo and Schmitt 2016).”
BackgroundThe Human Family—Its Evolutionary Context and Diversity
Kramer, K. L. (2021) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci10060191 · Cited by 21
“Hunting parties are often composed of relatives, but good hunters (e.g., those with high return rates) also seek out other proficient hunters as friends and hunting partners, a preference noted among other groups of hunter-gatherers (Wiessner 2002).”
BackgroundBeetle and Plant Arrow Poisons of the San People of Southern Africa
Chaboo, C. S., Hitchcock, R. K., Bradfield, J., & Wadley, L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815339-0.00002-0 · Cited by 19
Middle Paleolithic Large-Mammal Hunting in the Southern Levant
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Geary, D. C. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520802392240 · Cited by 18
“Across cultures, these men are of higher status and their children—and therefore those of their wives—have lower mortality risks (Hawkes, O’Connell, & Blurton Jones, 2001; Smith, 2004; Wiessner, 2002).”
BackgroundEcosystem controls and the archaeofaunal record: an example from the Wyoming Basin, USA
Byers, D. A., & Smith, C. S. (2007) · The Holocene · doi:10.1177/0959683607085122 · Cited by 18
“Further, ethnographic research on men’s hunting goals underscores the emphasis that hunters attach to prey body size: if large game are present on the landscape, male hunters persistently seek them out (Hawkes, 1991, 1993; Wiessner, 2002).”
BackgroundWhat prevents people from making friends: A taxonomy of reasons
Apostolou, M., & Keramari, D. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110043 · Cited by 17
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“Generous meat sharing lies at the heart of gift-giving and plays a role in establishing and maintaining cooperative bonds among individuals, affirming and validating existing relationships (Nolin 2010), building alliances and coalitional support (Patton 2005), and realizing long-term political goals (Wiessner 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialKraft, T. S., Venkataraman, V. V., Tacey, I., Dominy, N. J., & Endicott, K. M. (2018) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-018-9334-2 · Cited by 18
“For example, Wiessner (2002) found that good !”
BackgroundInfluentialO’Malley, R. C., Stanton, M. A., Gilby, I. C., Lonsdorf, E. V., Pusey, A. E., Markham, A. C., & Murray, C. M. (2015) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.009 · Cited by 17
“Being a good hunter is positively associated with reproductive success (Hill and Hurtado, 1996; Marlowe, 1999; Wiessner, 2002).”
BackgroundLupo, K., & Schmitt, D. (2023) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-023-09607-8 · Cited by 18
Ochre communities of practice in Stone Age Eswatini
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Preludes to Power in the Highland Late Preceramic Period
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“This elaborate exchange system turned out to be crucial for their survival under those extreme conditions (Weissner, 2002).”
BackgroundInnovation, life history and social networks in human evolution
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“This nesting is manifest in regular interaction variously through kinship ties (in humans, much more elaborate than those of great apes and not dependent on co-residence [47,48]), through acknowledged relations of reciprocation (of which the San Hxaro system is a famous exemplar [49]), or through shared ritual connect…”
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Hirth, K. (2020) · Cited by 14
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“These simple forager societies are composed of open, residential groups nested in a larger unit, with movement and social intercourse between them (Wiessner 2002, Wiessner 2014).”
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“Specifically, the need to influence the rain and the game would have become critical, with ritual specialists probably working together as they do today when bands aggregate, as well as holding healing dances to dissipate tensions (Katz, 1982; Wiessner, 2002).”
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“A short-term crisis such as this could have prompted the initial emergence of intergroup connections to provide access to resources in other territories, much as the hxaro bead exchange system was used to access distant water sources (Wiessner 2002).”
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“…Ziker and Schnegg 2005), reciprocal altruism (Bliege Bird et al. 2002; Gurven 2004b; Hill and Kaplan 1993; Kaplan and Hill 1985; Sahlins 1972; Smith 1988; Trivers 1971:35; Winterhalder 1986), and risk minimization (Cashdan 1985, 1990; Kaplan and Hill 1985; Wiessner 1982, 1994; Winterhalder 1986).”
BackgroundRelatedness within and between Agta residential groups
Dyble, M., Migliano, A. B., Page, A. E., & Major‐Smith, D. (2021) · Evolutionary Human Sciences · doi:10.1017/ehs.2021.46 · Cited by 11
“…networks of kin across space has been argued to be beneficial to individuals because the ability to move between camps containing kin can provide insurance against local environmental failure (Wiessner, 2002) and provide opportunities for marrying outside of one ’ s group (Kramer et al., 2017).”
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Dyble, M. (2018) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2018.0069 · Cited by 11
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“…while there have been some direct observations of limited resource failures, such as the failure of a mangetti crop in a particular area (Wiessner 2002), theremay be rarer but farmore catastrophic periods of economic crisis duringwhich networks of reciprocity take on far more serious…”
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Meltzer, D. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632867.005 · Cited by 9
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“…effect of kinship on fair or generous sharing (Essock-Vitale and McGuire 1980; Gurven 2004; Gurven et al. 2000, 2001; Nolin 2011; Patton 2005; Wiessner 2002; Ziker and Schnegg 2005), the experimental literature does not find convincing evidence for any effect of kinship on fairness (Barr…”
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Herrero-Alonso, D., Maíllo‐Fernández, J., Abellán, N., Moral, M., González-Molina, I., Solano-Megías, I., Luzón-Ruiz, S., Marín, J., Álvarez‐Vena, A., Martín‐Perea, D., et al. (2025) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2025.103715 · Cited by 7
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“Some of this knowledge and information on long-distance exchange and associated global commodities such as ostrich eggshell beads and cattle is firmly etched in oral histories and ethnographies (Wiessner 2002) and is complemented by archaeological finds in the region (Swan 2007).”
Commitment bias: mistaken partner selection or ancient wisdom?
Back, I. (2009) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.06.006 · Cited by 6
Evolving Cultural Things-That-Think
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In need-based sharing, sharing is more important than need
Lightner, A. D., Pisor, A. C., & Hagen, E. H. (2023) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.02.010 · Cited by 6
“Our findings resemble key characteristics of delayed reciprocity, for example, where future returns are somehow expected, but strict book-keeping is not (Wiessner, 2002).”
Why Are Children Impatient? Evolutionary Selection of Preferences
Kageyama, J. (2013) · Theoretical Economics Letters · doi:10.4236/tel.2013.35a3003 · Cited by 5
“, Wiessner [21,22] and Gurven et al.”
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Vacancies in growing habitats promote the evolution of cooperation
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Resolving selfish and spiteful interdependent conflict
Stewart, A. J., Pilgrim, C., & Raihani, N. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2024.0295 · Cited by 4
“Hxaro partnerships in Ju/ ’ hoansi societies also serve a risk-pooling function [87] and the term may also signal positive interdependence among interaction partners [88].”
BackgroundCoppedè, F., Bosco, P., Fuso, A., & Troen, A. M. (2012) · Current Gerontology and Geriatrics Research · doi:10.1155/2012/926082 · Cited by 5
The Cultural Brain Hypothesis and the transmission and evolution of culture
Muthukrishna, M. (2015) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0166517 · Cited by 3
Signals from the Hunt: Widening the Spectrum on Male Pursuits of Dangerous Animals
Oommen, M. A., & Shanker, K. (2021) · Journal of Anthropological Research · doi:10.1086/715404 · Cited by 3
Schoville, B. J., Chiwara-Maenzanise, P., Otárola‐Castillo, E., & Wilkins, J. (2023) · Lithic Technology · doi:10.1080/01977261.2023.2233167 · Cited by 3
“Ethnographic research in the Kalahari suggests that recent foraging societies use arrowhead styles to signal social relationships (Wiessner, 1977, 1983, 2002).”
BackgroundGibson, D., & Oosthuysen, E. (2009) · Anthropology Southern Africa · doi:10.1080/23323256.2009.11499976 · Cited by 3
“International and national literature also frequently characterise the knowledge traditions of the San as deeply spiritual and/or communal, as demonstrated in trance dance and healing (Katz 1982; Katz et a/ 1997; Keeney 2003) and in the reciprocity of xaro exchange (Wiesner 2002).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Wiessner, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Utah (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wiessner, Polly
- ORCID
- Wiessner, Polly
- Venue
- Evolution and Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-11
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 407-436
- ISSN
- 1090-5138 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2079467302
- Cited by
- 276
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 9.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Evolution and Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeology and Rock Art Studies
- Keywords
- big game hunting, Ju/'hoansi, food procurement, reciprocity, costly signaling, nepotism, cooperative breeding, political goals
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