The DOI matches its Crossref record; 457 of the 477 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 71 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant
Open accessAbstract
The Levant - modern Lebanon, southern Syria, Jordan, Israel and Palestine - is one of the most intensively excavated regions of the world. This richly documented and illustrated survey offers a state-of-the-art description of the formative phase of Levantine societies, as they perfected the Mediterranean village economy and began to interact with neighboring civilizations in Egypt and Syria, on the way to establishing their first towns and city-state polities. Citing numerous finds and interpretive approaches, Greenberg offers a new narrative of social and cultural development, emulation, resistance and change, illustrating how Levantine communities translated broader movements of the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Bronze Age - the emergence of states, international trade, elite networks and imperial ambitions - into a uniquely Levantine idiom.
Overview
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TL;DR
This chapter synthesizes the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA) Levant as a long post-urban, village-based, politically segmented period, roughly 2500–2000 BCE, increasingly drawn into the orbit of urban Syria. It argues the period was not simple collapse or nomadic invasion but a restructuring of settlement, economy, and mortuary practice amid new regional connectivity.
Key findings
- By c. 2400 BCE all Levantine sites with EB III presence were abandoned, some briefly and others permanently; the IBA lasted 400–600 years depending on subregion and is characterized by tell-avoidance, marginal-zone settlement, and village sites.
- Surveys record an abundance of IBA sites: 285 find-spots in the West Bank database, more than 250 east of the Jordan, upward of 300 in the Negev Highlands, perhaps 500 in the Negev and Arabah, and a similar number in northern/central Sinai—approaching 2,000 sites in all parts of the Levant and Sinai.
- Mortuary practice was prominent: more than 100 shaft-tomb cemeteries are known; Jericho had about 350 adults and 20 subadults in about 360 tombs, while ‘Ain Samiya/Dhahr Mirzbaneh had 1,100 tombs and Kirmil 850.
- IBA ceramics shifted toward village workshop production and drinking vessels, with Syrian-inspired black wheelmade ware; copper-alloy daggers in Type A burials contained 1–5 percent arsenic, suggesting northern copper sources. Negev Highlands “boomtowns” are reinterpreted as tied to pastoral/wool economies rather than a convincing copper boom.
Methods
- Design: a synthetic regional and thematic synthesis of the IBA Levant, presented as a book chapter rather than a primary excavation report.
- Data: archaeological surveys and excavations, ceramic typology and provenance studies, radiocarbon and OSL dates, faunal and botanical assemblages, mortuary data, and comparative Syrian/Near Eastern evidence.
- Main analysis: comparative synthesis of settlement patterns, material culture, exchange, climate, and mortuary treatment across Lebanon, Galilee, Jordan Valley, highlands, coastal plain, Negev, and Sinai.
Limitations
- The paper states that absolute chronology at both ends of the period and between internal stages is ill-defined because of absent modeled radiocarbon sequences from EB III to IB and IB to MB I, few stratified IBA sites, and imprecise survey period attributions.
- It also notes that tomb typologies have not been successfully correlated with other significant community characterizations, and that bioarchaeological data and secure comparative living-community assemblages are lacking.
- Evident from the text: the synthesis depends heavily on survey, salvage, and chance finds, with some excavated household descriptions still unpublished and the “copper boom” theory lacking a convincing chronological context.
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Claims the paper makes
80 Own interpretation · 66 Sources not found · 36 No basis given · 8 Own result · 2 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“But the distribution of tomb-types has yet to be successfully correlated with any other significant characterization of the communities in question.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“One of the striking changes in the ceramic inventory was the adoption of a new set of containers designed for the mixing, distribution and consumption of beverages (Figure 4.7).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Wool production had never been prominent in south Levantine EB III towns, if we may judge by the lack of evidence for weaving at these sites.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“All the daggers that have been in analyzed in this class of burial proved to have been made of copper alloy, containing 1–5 percent arsenic.105”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [105]
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In the paper
“The EB III southern Levant had grown increasingly insular, with only sporadic contacts with regions to its north and south.”
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In the paper
“This long process of urban retreat, which began as early as the first quarter of the third millennium in some regions, may no longer qualify for the sobriquet of collapse, but is nonetheless post-urban.”
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In the paper
“Most of the sites, including the three or four largest ones, occupy a band that stretches across the northern part of the highlands and onward toward northern Sinai.”
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In the paper
“In terms of absolute chronology, the transitions at either end of the period and between its internal stages are ill-defined.”
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In the paper
“A measure of the degree to which IBA settlement recognized previous centers is the peculiar choreography of settlement and burial near and within previously urban sites that will be detailed below.”
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In the paper
“A recurring category that cuts across regions and grave or tomb types is the singular, articulated male dagger-burial (these are nearly always single burials, but the occasional double burial is included in this category, as it represents a single event of inhumation).”
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In the paper
“BWW was found in considerable quantities in upper Jordan Valley sites (particularly at Hazor), and in tombs in the Jezreel, Jordan and Biqa' Valleys.”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“'En Ziq was built on a broad terrace overlooking a seasonal riverbed, at a point where the high water table allowed easy access to subsurface runoff from the nearby springs.78”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“The eighty huts of this site are huddled together on a narrow, rocky ridge, a few hundred meters away from the small Well of the Dewdrops, after which the site is named”
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In the paper
“At both sites, ceramics originating in central and southern Transjordan account for 50–60 percent of the total samples studied (a bias toward the sampling of red-slipped wares, some of which could date to EB III, has probably inflated the true proportion, in this case), with the remainder being split between the Judean hills, the central Negev (most likely, the Har Yeroham workshop) and the northe”
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In the paper
“Major cemeteries include those near the mounds of Jericho, Megiddo, Bet Shean, Lachish, 'Ajjul and Bab edh-Dhra';89 coastal cemeteries at Azor, Yehud, Bet Dagan, Ma'abarot and 'Ein Assawir;90 Jordan Valley cemeteries at Hagosherim, Tel 'Amal, Tiwal ash-Sharqi and Wadi al-Hammah;91 and the central hill cemeteries of 'Ain Samiya/Dhahr Mirzbaneh, el-Jib, Efrata, Kirmil and Jebel Qa'aqir.92”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [89]
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In the paper
“The main relevant production site in Wadi Feinan is Khirbet Hamra Ifdan (KHI), which has already been described in Chapter 3 as an EB III site, and indeed the main phase of activity at KHI is the earlier phase, which spans the twenty-sixth to twenty-fifth centuries and which has a ceramic inventory that lacks IBA characteristics.”
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In the paper
“Largest is 'En Ziq, with more than 200 structures covering about 2 hectares on a terrace above a seasonal stream, a short distance away from the oasis of 'En Ziq and 'En Shaviv.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The seeming disparity between extensive cemeteries and an impoverished settlement landscape gave rise to many social and historical models that viewed the IBA as a period of widespread nomadization.94”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [94]
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In the paper
“As we saw in Chapter 3, each of the fortified towns of the EB III took its own path to abandonment: some were abandoned early, and others late; some appear to have devoted enormous energies to augmenting their fortifications, right to the bitter end, while others dispensed with fortifications and seem to have established themselves as centralized manorial estates.”
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In the paper
“The former are small tombs where articulated adult skeletons (all male, when identified), placed on their right side, are provided with daggers and an occasional personal ornament, but no pottery”
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In the paper
“A slightly different path was taken at Tel Lachish, which had a robust, though largely unexcavated, EB III settlement: here, the site was completely abandoned, with IBA occupation reemerging on a hill just northwest of the mound, within view of it.33”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Egyptian connections had largely been severed, as Egypt cultivated the sea routes to Byblos and the north Levantine coast”
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In the paper
“Tel Bet Yerah itself was never resettled in the IBA proper, and only sporadically in later periods.”
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In the paper
“Only a few kilometers south of Bet Yerah, at the far end of the sameKinrot valley that sustained the former town, the large IBA village of Sha'ar Hagolan was established, virtually reproducing the layout of the “terminal EBA” quarter at Bet Yerah and exhibiting a rich assemblage of well-made IBA ceramics (see Figure 4.8).32”
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In the paper
“Thus, at Jericho, about 350 adults and 20 subadults (based on counts by Kenyon and Greener)95 were interred in about 360 tombs, presumably over two or three centuries.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [95]
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In the paper
“These results are consistent with a less clearly resolved sequence for the stratified site of Tell Arqa in Lebanon, one of the few Levantine sites with an EB–IB–MB sequence that shows only brief gaps, and with the new radiocarbon schemes for the third and second millennium Levant.11”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [11]
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In the paper
“Similarly, the town of Tel Yarmuth was abandoned for the duration of the IBA (and beyond), with small IBA settlements and cemeteries established just out of sight of the mound, 1–2 kilometers to the northeast.34”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The faunal assemblages of both 'En Ziq and Be'er Resisim are dominated by sheep/goat, with evidence for some small-scale hunting or trapping at Be'er Resisim.”
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In the paper
“A single modeled radiocarbon sequence from Tell Abu an-Niaj in the Jordan Valley – a region in which stratified IBA sites are most common – reportedly spans the entire second half of the third millennium.9”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [9]
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In the paper
“persistent elements of material culture and technological style point to strong links between the urban and post-urban populations in most parts of the Levant.”
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In the paper
“Thus, though all these towns or strongholds were deserted by 2400 BCE, several typical trajectories to the creation of the post-urban landscape can be described.”
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In the paper
“Three of the twenty excavated tombs contained weapons – a dagger and two mace heads – but no other artifacts.”
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In the paper
“By c. 2400 BCE, all sites in the Levant that had shown an EB III presence were abandoned, some indefinitely, others only briefly.”
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In the paper
“More than 100 shaft-tomb cemeteries and untold numbers of above-ground mortuary monuments have made the IBA a byword in the study of Levantine mortuary practice”
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In the paper
“The IBA is characterized by an abundance of sites and of cemeteries (both below and above ground).”
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In the paper
“As will be seen, these new opportunities did not lead to the reemergence of centralized polities or to aggregations of wealth.”
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In the paper
“It presents a typically sandy external aspect, verging to green in some coastal industries, and rarely carries any vestiges of painted decoration, but only occasional stippled, combed or incised patterns.”
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In the paper
“But they also bear the imprint of cultural transmission, since a similar set was adopted broadly in western Syria in the mid-third millennium, and certain stylistic flourishes – as well as a complete repertoire of specialized vessels (the black wheelmade ware of the Biqa' and northern Jordan Valley) – can be shown to travel from north to south.”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“In all cases, burials were a singular event, probably conducted soon after death, but they created a highly visible mark in the landscape that could serve as the focus of commemorative performances, attract additional burials and signal territorial claims.103”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [103]
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hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Now, for the first time, wool- and hide-producing herds were to be managed as an economic venture, rather than as a mode of subsistence, and this could be best effected outside the agricultural zone, along the eastern margins and in the Negev Highlands.”
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In the paper
“This probably occurred when villages grew and created pressure on the lands in their immediate environs.”
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In the paper
“While this reorientation affected the entire ambit of Levantine culture, it is clearly graded: areas nearer to urbanized western Syria show the greatest impact, while areas to the south reflect the attrition of distance and the effects of transmission, reinterpretation, and reintegration of Syrian concepts into south Levantine practice.”
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, the IBA preference for marginal-zone settlement is maintained from start to end of the period (though it is perhaps more pronounced in the earlier centuries) and would appear to be counterintuitive for a dry period, as would the retreat from these zones in the presumably somewhat improved second millennium climate.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was suggested earlier that the site of Har Yeroham might be considered the southernmost instance of IBA agricultural settlement, utilizing a favorable niche in the Yeroham basin.”
hedged- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ceramic production was integral to village life in the IBA and was one of the modes of post-urban regeneration.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These tombs were sealed with large slabs and never reentered, though they were probably visible on the surface.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Western Syria, as far as the Euphrates Valley and even beyond it, was dominated by the Kingdom of Ebla in the Early Bronze IVA (c. 2500–2300 BCE).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ritual was confined to the domestic sphere, including – as I shall try to demonstrate below – mortuary ritual; this is in sharp contrast to the collective ethos of the EBA as expressed in its temple complexes as well as in its collective cave tombs and charnel houses.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Multiple lines of proxy evidence (extracted from ice cores, lake bottoms, and cave speleothems across the northern hemisphere) converge in indicating a significant and prolonged drought, caused by anomalies in the North Atlantic Oscillation, which is responsible for the Mediterranean westerlies that deliver precipitation in areas directly relevant to the Levant.15”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It is this phase that produced casting molds for pins, axes and ingots, which could indeed have been sent westward to the first settlers in the highland sites (Figure 4.11).84”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [84]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“where urban power was expressed through collective labor and monumental construction, village houses reflected the labor power of the nuclear or extended family alone, and no public construction was attempted.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The archaeological record is complete enough to detect public construction in IBA villages.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They had no productive capacity, but were avid consumers of local (food) and imported (ceramic) resources.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Fragile Crescent Project conducted in Syria describes, in detail, the ramifications of the spread of an intensive wool economy in the Levant in the second half of the third millennium: the replacement of linen by wool freed considerable tracts of arable land for staple agriculture, whereas the production of fibers moved to the marginal zones, better suited for sheep husbandry.3”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Transjordan, where the transition from EB III was less accentuated, in social terms, than in the west, the old red-slipped tradition was carried over to the IBA, with only slight changes in form seen in the earliest phase”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The absence of such sequences is a product of the shifts in settlement patterns that characterize the beginning and end of the period, as well as the tendency of IBA settlements to relocate every few decades, which results in a wealth of sites and cemeteries spread across the landscape rather than superimposed on one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it should be viewed as a response to the stresses and excesses of the urbanizing trends that had affected large parts of the Levant, and as a risk-minimizing strategy that expanded the resource base for a more dispersed population.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The excavations suggest that the dynamics of settlement in the semi-arid margins are, in part, an extension of IBA Mediterranean-zone dynamics and new economic opportunities, and in part an expression of the terminal stage of the long-lived, local Timnian tradition.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since local copper, familiar from the Wadi Arabah production sites and the Negev Highlands ingots, contains only traces of arsenic, the presence of arsenical alloys suggests input from northern copper sources.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This hypothesis may be the most parsimonious explanation for all the elements comprising the IBA settlement surge in the Negev.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“All their components can be shown to have Syrian antecedents, but the peculiar combination and technique make them a distinct regional type that straddles the interface between the urban and non-urban potting traditions.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [71]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, mortuary treatment and ceremony were more about the reinforcement of communal claims to land and to memory, and less about the reintegration of the dead into the community.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Jordan Valley IBA assemblages with strong EBA affinities, such as Bet Yerah Period E and Sha'ar Hagolan, lack black wheelmade ware, and might represent an earlier ceramic phase, between 2500 and 2300.13”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [13]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Be'er Resisim seems to have had a somewhat longer settlement history than 'En Ziq, resulting in the filling-up of spaces between structures through the addition of rooms and fences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“where the town constrained housing to nuclear family units, the loose village structure allowed modular expansion for extended families;”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet, in each case, the erstwhile towns were not forgotten and often continued to serve as a commemorative or territorial resource: small settlements were established within a 2-kilometer radius of the mound and earlier cemeteries were reused, or, as was often the case, new cemeteries were established within view, where there had been no EBA cemeteries before.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The “early” phase is characterized by a technological regression in relation to the EB III, while the “late” phase provides more substantial regional industries that regain the use of slow-wheel coiling and adopt forms from the Syrian EB IVB sphere.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The prolonged urban exodus of EB III should therefore be understood as a redeployment that opened new avenues of opportunity while breaking down the cultural barriers that characterized the ossified landscape of fortified towns.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Few settlement sites are stratified, so that their abundance can generally be taken to represent the pattern created by semi- or partially sedentary groups, moving through the landscape over the five centuries of the IBA (Figure 4.1).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Be'er Resisim, a twice-published excavation,79 is substantially the same as 'En Ziq in concept and content, but differs in execution, most likely due to its location and lithology.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [79]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that even sites with an ideal location and a long settlement history before and after the IBA experienced at least a temporary abandonment in the EBA–IBA transition suggests that it was marked by a significant conceptual rift, which required a fundamental restructuring of society, settlement and production.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rope-decorated pithoi occur in the south, as well as in other regional industries, achieving a quite extraordinary size in some cases – evidence of the agricultural settings of the ceramic industries.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those industries maintained the technology of EBA ceramic production, while improving its technical quality and changing its decorative and formal priorities.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, they have the character of boomtowns – rapidly built and soon abandoned – that appear in conjunction with the discovery or development of previously untapped resources.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A trough between the two chambers contained, among other things, a group of spearheads.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Closest to Type A are shaft tombs containing primary burials of males with daggers that provide evidence for a more extended ritual, or of several burial episodes.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [109]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [110]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Here too, the males were provided with daggers and a whetstone, and the female with rings, bracelets and a 49.5-centimeter-long toggle pin.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Two scenes are depicted.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The better-preserved of the two contained six primary burials – three adult males, an elderly female and two children – accompanied by a single spouted pot and three daggers, one of them of made of tin bronze.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [112]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There are several additional examples of tombs with multiple primary burials where males were provided with daggers – often of tin bronze that could have been obtained only in Syria – but were interred alongside others, in tombs that were clearly reentered periodically and which served as a venue of rituals that included pouring and consumption of beverages.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [114]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Tomb 1 at Horshim, on the coastal plain, contained three primary burials, one of which was provided with a tin bronze dagger.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [110]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the end of this process, the individual has been completely subsumed in the ancestral group and can no longer be identified.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These include prestige objects directly imported from the north (such as silver and bronze jewelry and weapons), Syrian-inspired ceramic technologies, and the emulation, in local technologies, of Syrian ceramic forms.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Continuing work on the pastoral economy of Ebla and its neighbors indicates that wool and textiles were at the heart of the northwest Syrian economy, suggesting a knock-on effect in the Levantine margins that would have elevated the prestige of local potentates controlling large herds of sheep.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where there were more family members available to assist in the preparation of the tomb, or more participants in, or iterations of, the burial rites, we may find larger tombs or bigger inventories.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Ceramics here included cups, teapots and broad-spouted pouring vessels, or askoi, in addition to the other types.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cemeteries reproduced tribal or familial relationships and reestablished the centrality of ancestral claims”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These seem to be remnants of mortuary feasts, perhaps associated with the collection and redistribution of bones of the dead in the process of secondary interment.”
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“no articulated skeletal remains were found, but only numerous bone fragments that carpeted the central room and extended into the two lateral chambers”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [107]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In Tomb 3, the largest and best preserved of the tombs at Hazorea'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [107]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The human faces, serpent and sun-disk are shared between the two scenes, which might therefore be interpreted to represent two sequential states within a single narrative.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“finds consisted of a large collection of ceramics, among them thirty-eight jugs, thirty teapots, a cooking pot and several other containers, and several simple flint flake and blade tools.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [107]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The many local variations visible in cemeteries are doubtless a reflection of the length of the period, the diversity of regional identities (as expressed, for example, in the ceramic industries) and the fact that the mortuary tradition had to be reinvented after the EB II and III, when familial and tribal support structures were suppressed.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the physical affordances of the coastal lithology might have affected the choice of burial patterns.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A very prominent mortuary culture, often encircling abandoned mounds, appears to represent lingering territorial claims of an earlier era.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“one of which was furnished with benches”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [107]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 'Ain Samiya cup may thus have originated in EB III 'Ai, to be eventually deposited as an heirloom in the nearby IBA cemetery.”
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A long line of transmission – or an extended biography – for the 'Ain Samiya goblet.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(1) primary defleshing (outside the tomb), (2) disarticulation and collection, (3) deposition in tomb and (4) fragmentation and mingling with ancestral remains.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the scene conventionally depicted on the left, a figure with two human faces in profile, set atop a frontal human torso, which itself rests on two pairs of bulls' hindquarters, again in profile, and a small sun-disk, wards off a rearing serpent with a plant-like staff”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would indicate that the collective identity, represented by all those interred in each cemetery, was still a powerful force, competing with the familial one.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A bilobate tomb at 'Enan contained, in one chamber, a single adult male in primary articulation, accompanied by five daggers, apparently all of tin-bronze, a whetstone, a spearhead, an arrowhead, three copper pins, and ceramic lamps, amphoriskoi, jars and cooking pots.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such installations would have served both as a visible marker of the subsurface tombs on the hillslopes and as a possible venue for the pre-burial rites.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in the scene conventionally shown to the right, two human figures clad in woolen garments hold a crescent-shaped object that appears to define a celestial sphere, in which a large human-featured sun-disk is shown, and a nether sphere, to which the serpent is relegated.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
The excavated IBA villages are representative of IBA village life as a whole.
“The preceding survey of IBA villages, most of them excavated or published in recent decades, offers a new and remarkably uniform portrait of IBA village life”
The paper relies on this without support.
The archaeological record is complete enough to detect public construction in IBA villages.
“where urban power was expressed through collective labor and monumental construction, village houses reflected the labor power of the nuclear or extended family alone, and no public construction was attempted.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The archaeological record from surveys and excavations is representative enough of past settlement patterns to support conclusions about IBA settlement dynamics.
“Hundreds of surveyed sites and scores of excavations in IBA sites of the Negev and Sinai portray a vivid picture of desert settlement, resource extraction, and trade.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
A long line of transmission – or an extended biography – for the 'Ain Samiya goblet.
“In the absence of a local context for the creation and formal use of a ceremonial object of this caliber, we must assume a long line of transmission – or an extended biography – for this object.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 164 The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant
“Significantly, all IBA burials took place outside the settlements, in designated cemeteries.”
§ 150 The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant
“Additional caves within the site were used for individual burials, and a small shaft-tomb cemetery – also composed of individual burials – was excavated on a hilltop, a few hundred meters north of the site.”
Citations
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Metadata
- Authors
- Greenberg, R.
- Affiliations
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Greenberg, Raphael
- ORCID
- Greenberg, Raphael
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2019-10-21
- OpenAlex
- W3208455634
- Semantic Scholar
- 8651b2f7ee1848e644302428dbd14583f6b3fafd
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 477
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 17.98
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Mediterranean Archaeology and History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Near East History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
- Keywords
- Bronze Age Levant, Levantine archaeology, village economy, urbanization, state formation, international trade, elite networks, sociocultural change
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