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Advancing Empire: English Interests and Overseas Expansion, 1613-1688
Open accessAbstract
In Advancing Empire, L. H. Roper explores the origins and early development of English overseas expansion. Roper focuses on the networks of aristocrats, merchants, and colonial-imperialists who worked to control the transport and production of exotic commodities, such as tobacco and sugar, as well as the labor required to produce them. He is primarily interested in the relationship between the English state and the people it governed, the role of that state in imperial development, the socio-political character of English colonies and English relations with Asians, Africans, American Indians, and other Europeans overseas. The activities stimulated the expansion and integration of global territorial and commercial interests that became the British Empire in the eighteenth century. In exploring these activities from a wider perspective, Roper offers a novel conclusion that revises popular analyses of the English Empire and of Anglo-America.
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TL;DR
This chapter argues that Maurice Thompson and a Calvinist merchant network were central to seventeenth-century English overseas expansion, linking trade, colonization, and slave labor. It traces how their ventures, often failures, shaped Anglo-American plantation societies and the English Empire between 1613 and 1688.
Key findings
- Maurice Thompson and associates such as Thomas Andrews, Samuel Moyer, William Pennoyer, Rowland Wilson, and John Wood shared ardently Calvinist views, played central roles in the rebellion against Charles I, and became deeply involved in government between 1642 and 1660. Thompson shipped “about sixty slaves” to St. Christopher’s in 1626, described as the first recorded English slaving voyage to an English settlement.
- The Sandys-Ferrar directorate of the Virginia Company introduced headrights, a House of Burgesses, and indentured servitude in 1618; the “tobacco boom” of 1618–22 followed. The Powhatan attack on Easter 1622 killed over one-quarter of the settlers, and the Crown dissolved the Virginia Company in June 1624.
- African slavery preceded indentured servitude in Anglo-America: the first recorded mention of Africans at Virginia was in 1619/20, when a Dutch privateer brought “20.and odd Negroes,” but enslaved Africans were cultivating tobacco in Bermuda by 1616 and constituted 5 to 10 percent of that colony’s population by 1619. Henry Winthrop reported that 40 of Barbados’s 100 inhabitants were enslaved directly after the colony’s founding.
- Sir William Courteen’s global vision included Essequibo settlements producing a reported 800,000 pounds of tobacco per annum by 1623 and upward of £10,000 invested in Barbados; the Crown reportedly owed him £200,000 by the 1630s. Maurice Thompson and partners inherited and revamped Courteen’s plan, but their Assada Adventure failed amid indigenous resistance and restored monarchy interests in the Guinea trade in the early 1660s.
Methods
- Historical monograph chapter analyzing English overseas expansion from 1613 to 1688 through the careers, networks, and patronage ties of Maurice Thompson and his associates.
- Draws on archival and printed sources including court cases, depositions, wills, company records, state papers, correspondence, and promotional pamphlets.
- Main analysis is narrative and network-based, connecting religion, politics, trade, colonization, and labor while emphasizing failure as a primary result of English imperial activity.
Limitations
- Stated: the “sketchy historical record” limits understanding; ledgers and business records do not survive in significant numbers; precise population figures are impossible to recover with precision and methodology has drawn serious concerns; political heat around the tobacco boom requires wariness about claims; the author notes “we lack direct evidence” about colonizers’ thinking on indenture and “we do not know whose idea it was” to bring Venezuelan tobacco to Jamestown.
- Evident: the chapter centers elite male merchants, patrons, and officials; servants, enslaved Africans, and Indigenous peoples appear mainly through English records, so their perspectives and agency are not fully recoverable from this text.
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52 Sources not found · 36 No basis given · 21 Own interpretation · 1 Not checked yet
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“The first of these was the chartering of Robert Harcourt's settlement venture for Guiana”
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“we have the singular instance of a vision of global empire that was conceived and pursued by the Anglo-Dutch merchant Sir William Courteen.”
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“Harcourt's initiative came to nothing, however.”
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“This London merchant rose to preeminence among the figures who drove seventeenth-century English overseas trade and colonization”
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“Within three decades, however, sugar, in accordance with Harcourt's analysis, began to replace it in Barbados.”
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“and the other was the successful introduction of the cultivation of Varinas, or”
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“Although in that same year the Spanish sacked the colony”
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“Thus, they developed the practice of granting headrights that granted allocations of land to free migrants that were substantially augmented according to the number of additional migrants the original grantee brought with them.”
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“From there, Sir William's group began shipping English, Irish, and Dutch settlers to the Essequibo River on the Wild Coast of Guiana after James I returned the town to Zeeland's control.”
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“the need to pay for imports addicted the planters to cultivation of the weed to an extent that inevitably caused its price to plunge in the 1630s.”
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“The Earl responded to this overture, however, by forming a new alliance with Smythe that attacked Sandys's oversight of Virginia”
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“They also devised a House of Burgesses as a local governmental institution, the membership of which was chosen by local planters.”
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“Warwick joined the Virginia Company in 1617 and allied”
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“they devised the practice of indentured servitude in 1618 as a modification of the crucial norm in any preindustrial society: the employment of bound labor in agricultural production.”
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“Henry Winthrop, in relating the wonderful prospects he found in Barbados, asked his father to”
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“Warwick joined the Virginia Company in 1617 and allied with Southampton in the battle to end Sir Thomas Smythe's leadership of its venture.”
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“John Powell became the first Courteen-appointed Governor of Barbados after Henry had established Sir William's colony on the island in 1627.”
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“Courteen's agents used their knowledge and mainland contacts to introduce Indian slavery, with natives they brought from Guiana to Barbados, directly after the English began settling that island.”
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“Thus, Sandys solicited Warwick to cease and desist in order to avoid royal wrath.”
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“the Earl of Carlisle assumed the proprietorship of the”
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“Prior to his own migration to America, the elder Winthrop, through Henry and his acquaintance with the Powells (who served as postmen for the Winthrops), knew all about the importance of tobacco and bound labor for Anglo-American colonies.”
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“The Sandys-Ferrar modification of the familiar master-servant relationship also included the cost of transportation in an indenture by which migrants who lacked the wherewithal (£6 usually) to transport themselves to America contracted with the Virginia Company (and its assigns) to provide labor for a term of years to recover that cost.”
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“the administration of the province remained under the guidance of men, such as Edward Sackville, Earl of Dorset, Sir John Danvers, Sir John Wolstoneholme, Sir Francis Wyatt, and Abraham Jacob, who had amassed extensive Virginia experience during the company era that they carried with them after 1624.”
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“In the Western Hemisphere, the Earl invested in the Somers Island Company, which governed Virginia's sister colony, Bermuda”
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“A year later, the early settler of Barbados Henry Winthrop reported that 40 of the 100 inhabitants of that island, directly after the colony's founding, were enslaved people.”
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“Notwithstanding these realities, we can certainly say that the introduction of African slavery into Anglo-America actually preceded that of indentured servitude.”
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“The first recorded mention of Africans at Virginia occurred in 1619/20 when Rolfe reported to Sandys that a Dutch privateer had brought”
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“Thus, Warwick and his associates, often styled as”
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“Sir William Courteen was the most active of the backers of overseas ventures outside Warwick's circle.”
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“In 1629, Smith reported that almost three thousand people lived in the English zones of the island.”
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“The emergence of Thompson and others like him, regardless of individual confessional orientation, occurred in conjunction with the increasing importance of the wider world to English society, politics, and economics.”
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“also helps to repair further the anachronistic separation that has developed between the religious views of contemporaries and the continuing quest to provide labor, especially slaves, for the colonies.”
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“In addition, this system entailed the development of a metropolitanstyle political culture that was based on the cultivation of patronage networks usually headed by aristocrats.”
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“As English people, such as Thompson, soughtor were obliged to seeknew situations, their understanding of the nature of society and government remained essentially the samewith the vital exceptions that emanated from the creation of the Church of England and accompanying dissolution of the monasteries in the 1530s.”
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“Tobacco of the variety produced in South America became the best immediate prospect for achieving those ends.”
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“Important elements of this system became entrenched in faraway places.”
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“Among the most important of these was the belief that an individual's landed income or”
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“Prior to the 1640s, England remained very much a monarchy in which the sovereign ruled over a hierarchical society of orders in accordance with an”
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“In the broader sense, Harcourt's investigation of Guiana reflected the sensibility that colonizers should back plantation agriculture as the likeliest way of promoting national and personal interests.”
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“The most successful of these individuals formed the links that enabled them to transcend the distances that aggravated the ordinary issues involved in conducting business and in governing people thousands of miles away.”
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“The upper echelons of these networks also used their positions to secure state approval for these initiatives.”
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“The centrality of their association, which included one of the most prominent of the godly peers, Robert Rich, Earl of Warwick, to overseas ventures demonstrates the importance of networking”
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“two events occurred in that year that marked a permanent shift in the raison d'être of Anglo-American colonization efforts to the construction of plantations.”
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“that island's location made it an ideal base for Daniel Elfrith and other skippers affiliated with Warwick that they used in their attacks against the Spanish”
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“Yet for those involved in the colonial trade the recruitment of labor to cultivate staples held far more importance than the formation of American societies in of themselves did.”
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“Those who accepted these invitations also provided leadership for the colony by virtue of their new economic position and their connections.”
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“The cases of Virginia and St. Christopher's set the precedent whereby tobacco provided the economic lifeline to the metropolis”
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“This failed effort seems to have prompted Warwick to abandon the mainland and focus his West Indian agenda on the islands.”
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“Thus, the socioeconomic platform for the development of Anglo-America had formed.”
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In the paper
“Sir William sponsored plantations in the West Indies as well as Asian and African trading ventures that he sought to link via West Africa before his death in 1636.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“he identified sugar as the”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“played central roles in the rebellion against Charles I and became deeply involved in government between 1642 and 1660”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maurice Thompson and his partners inherited and revamped the Courteen plan over the next two decades.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“John Rolfe played an integral role in extending cultivation of the weed to Virginia by conducting the first trial of Venezuelan tobacco there.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their Assada Adventure, however, ran afoul of indigenous resistance to the settlement of this island in the Indian Ocean and then of the interests of the restored monarchy in the Guinea trade in the early 1660s.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“he and his associates, such as Thomas Andrews, Samuel Moyer, William Pennoyer, Rowland Wilson, and John Wood, who shared his ardently Calvinist religious views”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Harcourt's venture followed a series of English failures on the South American mainland including one of his own four years previously.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“he and his new wife then ventured to England where they served as the faces of a promotional campaign that yielded both successful recapitalization of and new management for the Virginia Company and the”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“He also was among the sixteen subscribers to”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Born in 1604, he was among those who came to Virginia at the onset of the”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“His favorable report convinced Sir William to secure a patent to the island through the offices of William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke; he then invested upward of £10,000 in establishing a colony there.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The resulting campaign of denunciation and counterdenunciation created such distractions that the Crown had to step in reluctantly, dissolve the Virginia Company in June 1624, and place the colony under royal administration.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [21]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Carlisle granted a syndicate of London merchants headed by Marmaduke Rawdon 10,000 acres of Barbados land; their own agent, Charles Wolverston, used that authority to assume the government over the entire island.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [32]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“enslaved Africans were cultivating tobacco, as well as scouring shipwrecks for salvage on Bermuda (founded in 1612) by 1616, and they constituted 5 to 10 percent of that colony's population by 1619.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By 1623, these settlements were producing a reported 800,000 pounds of tobacco per annum.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“having survived the Powhatan attack of 1622, Thompson returned to England, never to cross the Atlantic again”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Meanwhile, Warwick and his associates turned their attention more closely to the Caribbean.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [22]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The Warwick group certainly translated this system to Bermuda where they held sway”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [28]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“after her kidnaping, he famously married Pocahontas, daughter of the Powhatan sachem Wahunsonacock, thereby ending the First Anglo-Powhatan War that had beset Virginia since its founding.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“He also knew, probably not coincidentally, both that slavery existed as a labor option for Anglo-American planters and how the American trade in indentured labor functioned.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thompson received a relatively middling 150 acres.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“While the Earl continued his private war against the Spanish, however, this particular idea of a company never came off due to the disputes over the mismanagement of the larger conflict”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prior to 1623, however, this sort of activity ran afoul of the peace policy of James I (reigned 1603-25).It therefore exposed the charters of colonies that harbored pirates to the threat of annulment for violating their corporate privileges.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The English settlement of St. Christopher's began, according to Captain John Smith's account, as an offshoot of Roger North's Amazon forays, with the first colonists arriving in January 1624 led by Captain Thomas Warner.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Although the population of the infant colony was”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Moreover, Henry's uncle had reported that none of the grocers with whom he spoke about it would pay five shillings a pound for it.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“After he assumed his earldom in 1619, Warwick assembled an extensive web of mercantile, clerical, and political clients that he used, in conjunction with like-minded aristocrats, such as his brother, Henry Rich, Earl of Holland, and William Fiennes, Viscount Saye and Sele, to promote his fiercely anti-Spanish views”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 1626, within three years of subscribing to”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Southampton's clients, Sir Edwin Sandys and the merchant Ferrar brothers, John and Nicholas, put into effect several plans, all of which were employed in Anglo-America as it expanded”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Thompson actually lived in Virginia for four or five years when he was a young man, conceivably as a servant, although we have no evidence on this point.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“its spirit remained alive in the form of the Providence Island Company, which Warwick, Holland, Saye, and a remarkably large and important group of partners founded in order to continue harassment of the Spanish as well as pursue other Caribbean prospects.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This venture lasted from 1625 to 1629 while England and Spain were at war after which it became bankrupt and Harcourt was killed by Indians in 1631.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [23]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This undertaking, however, ran afoul of the unfortunate practice, whether due to oversight, ministerial inefficiency, disinterest, dissimulation, or confusion, of Charles I of granting multiple patents to similar rights to conduct overseas trade and colonization.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“finding the tobacco he had already received to be”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overhaul of the administration of the Virginia Company that accompanied the introduction of tobacco cultivation involved the removal of Sir Thomas Smythe”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“problems arose with Warwick's enthusiasm for piracy, which extended to the Indian Ocean where to the deep irritation of the East India Company one of his crews seized a vessel carrying the mother of the Mughal Emperor and £100,000 worth of cargo.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For instance, the Powells knew both Henry Winthrop and Henry's father, John Winthrop, the Governor of Massachusetts Bay.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Another of the Carlisle's clients, Henry Hawley, then arrived in Barbados and arrested Powell.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [32]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Yet their careers have rarely received the attention they warrant outside of Robert Brenner's mammoth study, now over twenty years old.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prior to 1613, the goals of those English people interested in the Western Hemisphere had focused on trade, primarily for animal pelts, with American Indians; the search for mines containing seams of ores that could be processed into precious metals; bases for conducting piracy; the search for a passage around or through America to Asia; and fishing.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet unlike the epiphenomenal efforts of Sir Walter Ralegh and other gold-blinded explorers, it ignited English interest in colonization in the West Indies.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet notwithstanding the ultimately extensive global influence of the English, failure constitutes the primary result of their activities”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is only through the study of the many failures they incurred that we can obtain a comprehensive sense of the history of the English Empire.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reciprocity between the social orders constituted the ligaments of the body politic that served as the sociopolitical ideal throughout Western Europe and beyond.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the 1610s, certain figures had worked out that overseas trade and colonization could boost both their incomes and their political prominence.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cases of Thompson and his counterparts also provide clear illustrations of how their pursuit of overseas trade and colonization fit into the changing circumstances in which these activities took place as well as how those changes affected the conduct of those ventures.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Carrying out such long-range agendas, however, not only required substantial capital, in both fiscal and mental terms, to absorb the myriad risks and extensive costs.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even so, the scheme provided the basis for extending the English presence in the Eastern Hemisphere and for establishing the connection between Africa and Anglo-America.”
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although crucial differences existed between the metropolitan theme and its colonial variations, especially the absence of a hereditary aristocracy since people with titles tended not to migrate certainly on a permanent basis.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thompson did not report on the origins of that voyage, but its occurrence indicates that he (and probably other English people) had an awareness of how the trans-Atlantic slave trade worked.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A clamor for renewed hostilities with the old enemy meant that traders and colonizers could now frequent the Caribbean without risking incarceration in the Tower.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [24]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Servitude remained a familiar mechanism of ensuring that an agricultural labor force was in place throughout the year as well as, by dint of the customary practice of providing servants with room and board over the course of their term (customarily one year in England), an avenue for conducting reciprocity between servants and masters.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The demands of colonizers necessitated the development of colonies that produced and consumed commodities that benefited those backers.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The region had been officially off limits to English overseas operators after the Anglo-Spanish Treaty of London of 1604.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, the establishment of a tobacco colony there, in conjunction with the slow recovery of Virginia after the tumults it had endured, provided both the platform for the further expansion of English overseas interests and a sense that these interests required better oversight.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the new officers of the company devised a plan for governing it and for providing access to labor to planters, which provided the model for the subsequent sociopolitical nature of English overseas colonization.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The running of the plantation trade required agents on the ground; colonizers recruited them with offers including land and the means to transform it into an estate.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Political culture played a controlling role in these developments: Warwick and other patrons would not have been cognizant of what was going on in America without the efforts of their clients on the ground.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This institution provided the main point of contact between metropolis and colony, ensured local oversight over local affairs, and thus provided protection for the estates of planters in conformity with the seventeenth-century English comprehension of social structure.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The collective goal for the Warwick networkin addition to profitseems to have been to carry the fight against the Catholic foe via privateering and colonization, which would also increase English territorial claims and the flow of revenue to both the Crown's coffers and the estates of the colonizers.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Plantations required bound labor to succeed.
“As these colonizers knew well, plantations required bound labor to succeed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Indentured servitude never brought migrants in sufficient numbers to meet colonial labor requirements.
“Indentured servitude certainly offered one feasible means of addressing this issue, yet it never brought migrants in sufficient numbers.”
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Origins of the British Empire in Asia, 1600–1750
Veevers, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108669344 · Cited by 25
The Making of an Imperial Polity
Working, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108625227 · Cited by 19
‘The Company as Their Lords and the Deputy as a Great Rajah’
Veevers, D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108669344.011 · Cited by 6
THE SOCIAL NETWORKS OF INVESTMENT IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND
Smith, E. (2020) · The Historical Journal · doi:10.1017/s0018246x2000045x · Cited by 6
Bennett, M. D. (2022) · Atlantic Studies · doi:10.1080/14788810.2022.2034569 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Roper, L. H.
- Affiliations
- SUNY New Paltz (US)
- Corresponding author
- Roper, L. H.
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2017-07-03
- OpenAlex
- W4240254012
- Cited by
- 29
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 20 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 12.09
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Colonialism, slavery, and trade
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Colonial History and Postcolonial Studies
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Legal and cultural studies analysis
- Keywords
- British Empire, English overseas expansion, colonialism, tobacco, sugar, colonial labor, English colonies, Anglo-American relations, 18th century, international trade, imperial networks
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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