Understanding Police Use of Force: Officers, Suspects, and Reciprocity
Abstract
Whenever police officers come into contact with citizens there is a chance that the encounter will digress to one in which force is used on a suspect. Fortunately, most police activities do not involve the use of force. But those that do reflect important patterns of interaction between the officer and the citizen. This book examines those patterns. It begins with a brief survey of prior research, and then goes on to present data and findings. Among the data are the force factor applied - that is, the level of force used relative to suspect resistance - and data on the sequential order of incidents of force. The authors also examine police use of force from the suspect's perspective. In analyzing this data they put forward a conceptual framework, the Authority Maintenance Theory, for examining and assessing police use of force.
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Police-citizen interactions are dynamic exchanges that can escalate into use of force or de-escalate into peaceful resolution.
“An interactionist approach to police use of force, however, conceptualizes officer-citizen interactions as dynamic exchanges that unfold with varying potential to escalate into a use of force event or de-escalate into a peaceful resolution (e.g., Alpert & Dunham, 2004;Sykes & Clark, 1975).”
From Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training (2020) · cites this paper as Alpert & Dunham, 2004
The decision to use force is influenced by factors beyond T3 training, such as situational context.
“Furthermore, the decision to use force is influenced not only by the approaches highlighted in the T3 training program, but also by aleatory factors such as the context of the situation (Alpert & Dunham, 2004;Shjarback, 2018).”
From Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training (2020) · cites this paper as Alpert & Dunham, 2004
Blocked goals in police-citizen interactions can create an action-reaction chain that escalates into force and continues until one party acquiesces.
“Alpert and Dunham assert that this blockage creates an action-reaction chain that can escalate into force and continue until one party acquiesces.”
From Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training (2020) · cites this paper as Alpert and Dunham (2004)
The T3 training is a practical application of Alpert and Dunham's asymmetric model.
“As a result, the training is a good example of a practical application of Alpert and Dunham's (2004) asymmetric model.”
From Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training (2020) · cites this paper as Alpert and Dunham (2004)
Each police-citizen interaction follows a trajectory toward either escalation to force or de-escalation away from force.
“Thus, each interaction follows a trajectory, whereby the officer and citizen either escalate the interaction towards force or de-escalate it away from force.”
From Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training (2020) · cites this paper as Alpert and Dunham (2004)
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Cited by 287
- Authors
- Alpert, G. P., & Dunham, R. G.
- Affiliations
- University of South Carolina (US)
- University of Miami (US)
- ORCID
- Alpert, Geoffrey P.
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2004-08-09
- OpenAlex
- W4243425801
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 5.07
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Emergency Medicine › Restraint-Related Deaths
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- police use of force, police-citizen encounters, police-suspect interaction, police discretion
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