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Electoral Systems and Political Context: How the Effects of Rules Vary Across New and Established Democracies
Abstract
Electoral Systems and Political Context illustrates how political and social context conditions the effects of electoral rules. The book examines electoral behavior and outcomes in countries that use 'mixed-member' electoral systems – where voters cast one ballot for a party list under proportional representation (PR) and one for a candidate in a single member district (SMD). Based on comparisons of outcomes under the two different rules used in mixed-member systems, the book highlights how electoral systems' effects – especially strategic voting, the number of parties and women's representation – tend to be different in new democracies from what one usually sees in established democracies. Moreover, electoral systems such as SMDs are usually presumed to constrain the number of parties irrespective of the level of social diversity, but this book demonstrates that social diversity frequently shapes party fragmentation even under such restrictive rules.
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“Weak parties make it harder to hold politicians collectively accountable (Moser and Scheiner 2012; Kitschelt et al. 2010), and create greater uncertainty about actors ' preferences, time horizons, and commitment to democracy (Lupu and Riedl 2013; Levitsky 2018; Flores-Macías 2018; Hicken 2016).”
From Parties, Civil Society, and the Deterrence of Democratic Defection (2020) · cites this paper as Moser and Scheiner 2012
Citations
Cited by
Fortin‐Rittberger, J., & Rittberger, B. (2014) · European Union Politics · doi:10.1177/1465116514527179 · Cited by 117
“The effects of electoral rules are therefore context dependent (Amorim Neto and Cox, 1997; Boix, 1999; Matland, 1998; Moser and Scheiner, 2012; Odershook and Shvetsova, 1994), and the context of EP elections is different from that of national elections.”
BackgroundBernauer, J., Giger, N., & Rosset, J. (2013) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512113498830 · Cited by 128
Parties, Civil Society, and the Deterrence of Democratic Defection
Bernhard, M., Hicken, A., Reenock, C., & Lindberg, S. I. (2020) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/s12116-019-09295-0 · Cited by 105
Representation in Context: Election Laws and Ideological Congruence Between Citizens and Governments
Powell, G. B. (2013) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592712003635 · Cited by 104
“8 Moser and Scheiner 2012.”
Identifying Voter Preferences for Politicians' Personal Attributes: A Conjoint Experiment in Japan
Horiuchi, Y., Smith, D. M., & Yamamoto, T. (2016) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2018.26 · Cited by 99
“Aware of this limitation, a few studies have taken advantage of mixed-member systems to examine observational differences in politicians’ attributes under different electoral rules while holding country-specific determinants constant (e.g., Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
Context, Electoral Rules, and Party Systems
Ferree, K. E., Powell, G. B., & Scheiner, E. (2014) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-102512-195419 · Cited by 70
Self-citationParty System Institutionalization, Accountability and Governmental Corruption
Schleiter, P., & Voznaya, A. (2016) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123415000770 · Cited by 62
“The reality, however, is that electoral accountability in democracies is not just structured by institutions, but also by the party system (Mainwaring 1993, Samuels and Shugart 2010, Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundElectoral Rules and Political Selection: Theory and Evidence from a Field Experiment in Afghanistan
Beath, A., Christia, F., Egorov, G., & Сергеевич, Е. Р. (2016) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rdw018 · Cited by 53
Nationalized incumbents and regional challengers
Wahman, M. (2015) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068815596515 · Cited by 51
“It is now widely held that party systems are the product of both institutions and social cleavages (Moser and Scheiner, 2012).”
BackgroundParty System Institutionalization, Party Collapse and Party Building
Mainwaring, S. P. (2016) · Government and Opposition · doi:10.1017/gov.2016.21 · Cited by 43
“These five books, two recent works that analysed different consequences of party system institutionalization (Flores-Macías 2012; Moser and Scheiner 2012) and two books on party system collapse (Morgan 2011; Seawright 2012), have greatly enriched the literature.”
BackgroundBernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629 · Cited by 41
Shin, K.-Y. (2014) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512113508146 · Cited by 37
“For various types of mixed electoral systems, refer to Shugart and Wattenberg (2001), Ferrara et al. (2005) and Moser and Scheiner (2012).”
BackgroundSocial Diversity Affects the Number of Parties Even Under First-Past-the-Post Rules
Milazzo, C., Moser, R. G., & Scheiner, E. (2017) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414017720704 · Cited by 41
“…district level in restrictive legislative elections—and largely avoid making definitive arguments about the likely effects of restrictive rules—but Moser and Scheiner (2012) examine the relationship between diversity and party fragmentation in four mixedmember electoral systems using SMD-level…”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationConstituency Diversity, District Magnitude and Voter Co-ordination
Potter, J. D. (2016) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123415000484 · Cited by 34
“…their sincerely most-preferred party.89 One interpretation of the results I present here poses a counterargument: voters may well understand the institutional incentives of low-magnitude districts and attempt to act strategically, but nonetheless their efforts may be 88 Moser and Scheiner 2012.”
BackgroundEthnic quotas and unintended effects on women’s political representation in Singapore
Tan, N. (2014) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512113508666 · Cited by 31
“This phenomenon is most evident in contexts where social prejudices19 persist against women, viewed as being less politically experienced or financially connected (Moser and Scheiner, 2012).”
BackgroundDistrict magnitude, electoral coordination, and legislative fragmentation
Silva, P. C. (2021) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2021.1952210 · Cited by 31
Demographic Diversity and District-Level Party Systems
Potter, J. D. (2014) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414013516918 · Cited by 30
How Turnout Depends on the Number of Parties: A Logical Model
Taagepera, R., Selb, P., & Grofman, B. (2013) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2013.858345 · Cited by 26
“Stoll (n.d., cited in Moser and Scheiner, 2012: 186–195; see also Madrid, 2005) argues that, rather than the number of parties increasing with social heterogeneity, as is commonly supposed to be the case, the pattern should instead be curvilinear.”
BackgroundGeographically Targeted Spending in Mixed-Member Majoritarian Electoral Systems
Catalinac, A. L., & Motolinia, L. (2021) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887121000113 · Cited by 25
Scheiner, E. (2012) · Journal of East Asian Studies · doi:10.1017/s1598240800008067 · Cited by 24
“Moreover, cross-national analysis (Moser and Scheiner 2012, chap.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDistrict magnitude and representation of the majority’s preferences: a comment and reinterpretation
Carey, J. M., & Hix, S. (2012) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-012-0023-0 · Cited by 22
“…that, outside environments where the number of candidacies is constrained and expectations about their relative strengths are firm, SMD elections are no more likely than multi-member district elections to constrain vote fragmentation or yield centrist outcomes (Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundParty Quotas and Rising Women Politicians in Singapore
Tan, N. (2015) · Politics & Gender · doi:10.1017/s1743923x14000646 · Cited by 21
MPs’ principals and the substantive representation of disadvantaged immigrant groups
Geese, L., & Schwemmer, C. (2019) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2018.1560196 · Cited by 18
“This environment provides researchers the opportunity to better disentangle the effects of these factors while holding constant influences of country-specific context (e.g. Moser and Scheiner 2012:46).”
BackgroundReligion and Voter Choice Homogeneity in the Nigerian Presidential Elections of the Fourth Republic
Nwankwo, C. F. (2019) · Statistics Politics and Policy · doi:10.1515/spp-2018-0010 · Cited by 24
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Party System Institutionalization: Reflections Based on the Asian Cases
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Party survival in parliament: Explaining party durability in lower‐house parliaments
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Electoral Reform in Asia: Institutional Engineering against ‘Money Politics’
Hellmann, O. (2014) · Japanese Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s1468109914000073 · Cited by 19
“Similarly, Moser and Scheiner (2012) argue that whether electoral systems have a reductive effect on party system fragmentation is determined by the level of party institutionalization and voters’ ability to gauge the competitiveness of the different parties.”
BackgroundGender, Ethnicity, and Intersectionality in Cabinets
Liu, A. H., Hlatky, R., Chew, K. P., Power, E. L., Selsky, S., Compton, B., & Meiying, X. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009570466 · Cited by 13
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Self-citationThe DPJ and Women: The Limited Impact of the 2009 Alternation of Power on Policy and Governance
Gaunder, A. (2012) · Journal of East Asian Studies · doi:10.1017/s1598240800008092 · Cited by 13
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Self-citationFerree, K. E., Gibson, C. C., & Hoffman, B. (2017) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068817705124 · Cited by 11
“These systems, typically used for national legislatures, combine single member districts elected through majority or plurality rules, with an at-large multi-member district elected via PR. Moser and Scheiner (2012) suggest that mixed-member systems offer an ideal laboratory for testing the interactive hypothesis becau…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGolosov, G. V. (2014) · Representation · doi:10.1080/00344893.2014.979223 · Cited by 12
“Mixed theoretical expectations regarding institutional effects are quite natural given that political contexts within which institutions operate are crucial determinants of their political consequences (Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundHerron, E. S., & Lynch, M. S. (2019) · Representation · doi:10.1080/00344893.2019.1581078 · Cited by 11
“…are not fully independent, but argues that the scale of any effect may be small and/or contingent on other factors such as the level of party system development or aspects of institutional design (Ferrara & Herron, 2005; Ferrara et al., 2005; Herron, 2002; Moser, 2001; Moser & Scheiner, 2012).”
BackgroundElectoral Institutions and Identity Based Clientelism in Jordan
Kao, K. (2022) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129221128752 · Cited by 19
Selway, J. (2015) · Journal of East Asian Studies · doi:10.1017/s1598240800009103 · Cited by 10
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“Here, context refers to the overall setting within which the representation is embedded and is ‘equivalent to variation in the values of important variables’ that influences how certain determinants’ effects unfold in a systematic way (Moser & Scheiner 2012, p. 8).”
BackgroundBalancing district and party seats: The arithmetic of mixed-member proportional electoral systems
Bochsler, D. (2022) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102557 · Cited by 9
Raabe, J., Krifft, R., Vogel, J. B., & Linhart, E. (2014) · Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Politikwissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s12286-014-0214-9 · Cited by 9
Stockemer, D. (2018) · Representation · doi:10.1080/00344893.2018.1525421 · Cited by 9
“For the collection of covariates, I restricted myself to six basic factors, which feature in most models measuring women’s representation (Moser and Scheiner 2012; Schwindt-Bayer and Mishler 2005).”
MethodStill Learning to Make Votes Count? Electoral Coordination in Mexico's Mixed-Member Electoral System
Díaz, A. G. (2022) · Election Law Journal Rules Politics and Policy · doi:10.1089/elj.2021.0074 · Cited by 8
The party system effects of unstable electoral rules in Latin America
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Socioeconomic heterogeneity and party system fragmentation
Riera, P. (2020) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2020.1784181 · Cited by 9
“In parallel, others rely on alternative measures of social diversity: Moser and Scheiner (2012) assess the effect of the rural-urban divide on party system fragmentation; Stoll (2013) uses several measures of social diversity related to ethnic, religious, urban-rural, socioeconomic, foreign policy,…”
MethodVučićević, D. (2025) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-025-01289-y · Cited by 7
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Chiaramonte, A., & Paparo, A. (2025) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-025-01303-3 · Cited by 7
Conservative Women in Germany and Japan: Chancellors versus Madonnas
Gaunder, A., & Wiliarty, S. E. (2019) · Politics & Gender · doi:10.1017/s1743923x18000867 · Cited by 7
“However, parties using this approach also sacrifice their ability to create more balanced or diversified lists (Christensen 2008; McKean and Scheiner 2000; Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundThe contingent effect of institutions: Electoral formulas, ethnic polarization, and election quality
Kolev, K. (2014) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2014.01.004 · Cited by 7
Cross-tier personal gains in mixed electoral systems
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Kortukov, D. (2019) · Problems of Post-Communism · doi:10.1080/10758216.2019.1677479 · Cited by 6
“Mixed systems are more restrictive than PR, but less restrictive than SMD (Moser and Scheiner 2012; Amorim Neto and Cox 1997).”
BackgroundThe resilience of ethnic minority parties in the face of strategic voting incentives
Allen, G. D. (2015) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068815610967 · Cited by 6
“A problem that Moser and Scheiner identify in their own findings is that they lack a clear understanding of which group of voters is behaving outside of strategic voting expectations (Moser and Scheiner, 2012: 252–254).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFerree, K. E., Powell, G. B., & Scheiner, E. (2013) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s153759271300220x · Cited by 6
“24 Filippov, Ordeshook, and Shvetsova 1999; Grofman, Bowler, and Blais 2009; Moser and Scheiner 2012.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCompeting Political Visions in the Legislative Council of Hong Kong
Jang, J. (2015) · Journal of Chinese Political Science · doi:10.1007/s11366-015-9361-3 · Cited by 6
Risk diversification and vote decisions in mixed-member electoral systems
Shikano, S., & Herron, E. S. (2025) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-025-01301-5 · Cited by 5
Electoral thresholds and political representation
Baskaran, T., & da Fonseca, M. L. (2016) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-016-0378-8 · Cited by 5
Wang, C., Weng, D. L.-C., & Wang, V. W.-C. (2018) · Japanese Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s1468109918000129 · Cited by 5
“…indicated that SMD and PR electoral arrangements under the mixed electoral system tend to approximate their expected effects in contrast to the view that the interaction of SMD and PR rules mutates the effects of each part of the system (Moser, 2001; Moser and Scheiner, 2004, 2012; Maeda, 2008).”
BackgroundExplaining women's political underrepresentation in democracies with high levels of corruption
Erlich, A., & Beauvais, E. (2022) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2022.46 · Cited by 5
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“In contrast, studies that consider differences in fragmentation between the SMD and PR tiers of the MMP have shown consistently smaller party systems in the SMD tier, as Duverger’s Law predicts (see Moser and Scheiner 2012, 110).”
ResultLublin, D. I., & Wright, M. (2014) · Election Law Journal Rules Politics and Policy · doi:10.1089/elj.2013.0220 · Cited by 4
Electoral System Incentives for Interparty and Intraparty Politics
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Jang, J., & Lin, N. C. N. (2018) · Japanese Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s1468109918000397 · Cited by 3
“…strategies, these legislatures provide a unique opportunity for students of comparative politics to examine whether elite behavior is affected by institutional design while holding many other external factors constant (Shugart and Wattenberg, 2001; Ferrara et al., 2005; Moser and Scheiner, 2012).”
BackgroundGendered parties and gendered voters in Hungary? “Plus ça change, plus c’est pariel”
Vajda, A., & Ilonszki, G. (2021) · East European Politics · doi:10.1080/21599165.2021.1873774 · Cited by 3
Golosov, G. V. (2014) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2014.887721 · Cited by 3
“When dealing with this problem, I followed Moser and Scheiner (2012) in assuming that political contexts within which electoral systems operate are crucial determinants of their political consequences.”
BackgroundStefańczak, K. Ó. B., & Connolly, E. (2015) · Caucasus Survey · doi:10.1080/23761199.2015.1086570 · Cited by 3
“The complex legacies of communism have been described as the main barriers to women’s formal political power in the region (Einhorn 1993; Funk and Mueller 1993; Jacquette and Wolchik 1998; LaFont 2001; Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialfuzzy sets … too fuzzy to study women’s representation in parliament!
Stockemer, D. (2016) · European Political Science · doi:10.1057/eps.2015.98 · Cited by 3
Krook, M. L., & Moser, R. G. (2013) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592713002211 · Cited by 3
Self-citationElectoral Rules and Political Selection: Theory and Evidence from a Field Experiment in AfghanistanPreprint
Beath, A., Christia, F., Egorov, G., et al. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2291187 · Cited by 3
Socioeconomic Development and Party System Fragmentation Cross‐Nationally
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“Because the national-level fragmentation of votes may not reflect the fragmentation of votes at the district level (e.g., Cox 1999; c.f., Moser and Scheiner 2012), we also examine a third measure of party system fragmentation using the mean district-level values of ENEP in each country in each…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialEthnicity, Institutions, and Female Representation
Goodnow, R., Madrid, R. L., & Moser, R. G. (2019) · Journal of Women Politics & Policy · doi:10.1080/1554477x.2019.1587383 · Cited by 2
“One could reasonably argue that the most appropriate level of analysis for analyzing the relationship between ethnicity and women’s representation (or any other outcome of interest) is the electoral district rather than the province (Moser and Scheiner 2012).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCarella, L. (2023) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1111/lsq.12438 · Cited by 2
Candidaturas presidenciales en Colombia 1974-2018. Factores condicionantes de su evolución
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Representation of Women and Ethnic Minorities in the Russian State Duma 1993-2021
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Self-citationSjöberg, F. M., & Herron, E. S. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2299492 · Cited by 1
Party System Institutionalization in Democracies
Mainwaring, S. P., Bizzarro, F., Watanabe, A., & Negri, M. V. D. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0248 · Cited by 1
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Torcal, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0256
Nakamura, K., & Wada, J. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3345557
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.004
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.007
Introducing Power Diffusion in Democracies
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.002
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.011
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.008
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.006
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.010
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.009
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.001
A Theory of Power Diffusion, Deliberation and Democracy
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.003
Bernauer, J., & Vatter, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108649629.005
Metadata
- Authors
- Moser, R. G., & Scheiner, E.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2012-09-28
- OpenAlex
- W4252921201
- Cited by
- 153
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 16.66
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Politics and Representation
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Keywords
- electoral systems, mixed electoral systems, proportional representation, single-member districts, strategic voting, party fragmentation, number of parties, women's political representation, new democracies, social diversity, voting behavior, election results
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