Major depression and cigarette smoking: Results of a 21-year longitudinal study
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The aim of this paper was to examine the association between major depression and cigarette smoking among young adults in a birth cohort before and after adjusting for confounding factors. METHOD: Data were gathered over the course of the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS). The CHDS is a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1265 New Zealand children studied to age 21. Data were gathered by interview on: (a) major depression over the period 16-21 years; (h) daily smoking and nicotine dependence over the period from 16-21 years. In addition, the study included extensive information on social, family, and behavioural factors in childhood and adolescence. RESULTS: Young people meeting DSM-IV criteria for major depression had elevated rates of daily smoking and nicotine dependence. These associations were reduced substantially by control for potential confounding child and adolescent factors. Nonetheless, even after such control, major depression was associated with increased rates of daily smoking (IRR = 1.19; 95% CI = 1.03, 1.39) and elevated rates of nicotine dependence (OR = 1.75; 95% CI = 1.13, 2.70). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that much of the association between smoking and depression reflects common confounding factors that are associated with both outcomes. Nonetheless, even after control for these factors there is evidence of a possible causal linkage between smoking and depression. The direction of causality between smoking and depression remains unknown.
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Smokers show higher rates of depression, and patients with major depression have higher levels of smoking than the nonclinical population.
“Just as smokers show higher rates of depression, patients with major depression have been shown to have higher levels of smoking than the nonclinical population (Covey, Glassman, & Stetner, 1997, 1998; Fergusson et al., 2003).”
From Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Fergusson et al., 2003
Depression symptoms are important determinants of smoking initiation, maintenance, and cessation, whereas nicotine dependence is associated with vulnerability for depression.
“Previous studies have shown that depression symptoms are important determinants of smoking initiation, maintenance, and cessation, whereas nicotine dependence is associated with vulnerability for depression (Breslau, Kilbey, & Andreski, 1991; Fergusson, Goodwin, & Horwood, 2003; Glassman et al., 1990; Hall, Muñoz, Reus, & Sees, 1993; Morrell & Cohen, 2006; Paperwalla, Levin, Weiner, & Saravay, 200”
From Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Fergusson et al., 2003
The relationship between nicotine dependence and major depression is maintained across adolescents, adults, and adults over age 60.
“this relationship was maintained across different age groups such as adolescents (Killen et al., 2004), adults (Fergusson et al., 2003), and adults over age 60 (Glassman, Covey, Stetner, & Rivelli, 2001).”
From Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders (2015) · cites this paper as Fergusson et al., 2003
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References 41 · Cited by 374
- Authors
- FERGUSSON, D. M., GOODWIN, R. D., & HORWOOD, L. J.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2003-10-30
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1357-1367
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2069082196
- Cited by
- 374
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 7.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH 64736, K23MH064736)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, cigarette smoking, nicotine dependence, young adults, birth cohort, confounding factors, causal relationship, Christchurch Health and Development Study
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Cross-Sectional Studies, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Female, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, New Zealand, Smoking, Tobacco Use Disorder, Cohort Studies, Comorbidity, Incidence
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