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Measuring facial expressions by computer image analysis
Abstract
Facial expressions provide an important behavioral measure for the study of emotion, cognitive processes, and social interaction. The Facial Action Coding System (Ekman & Friesen, 1978) is an objective method for quantifying facial movement in terms of component actions. We applied computer image analysis to the problem of automatically detecting facial actions in sequences of images. Three approaches were compared: holistic spatial analysis, explicit measurement of features such as wrinkles, and estimation of motion flow fields. The three methods were combined in a hybrid system that classified six upper facial actions with 91% accuracy. The hybrid system outperformed human nonexperts on this task and performed as well as highly trained experts. An automated system would make facial expression measurement more widely accessible as a research tool in behavioral science and investigations of the neural substrates of emotion.
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“Ekman defined six such categories, referred to as the basic emotions: happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust [19].”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [19]
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“He described each basic emotion in terms of a facial expression that uniquely characterizes that emotion.”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [19]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bartlett, M. S., Hager, J. C., Ekman, P., & Sejnowski, T. J.
- Affiliations
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies (US)
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bartlett, Marian Stewart
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1999-03
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 253-263
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2007431552
- Cited by
- 424
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 19.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Face recognition and analysis
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Keywords
- facial expressions, facial action units, facial action coding system, computer image analysis, wrinkles, hybrid classification system, emotion measurement
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Cues, Facial Expression, Female, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Male, Middle Aged, Databases as Topic
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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