The DOI matches its Crossref record; 114 of the 114 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis
Abstract
In this review, the authors examine the basis for the mnemonic superiority that results from relating material to the self. A meta-analysis confirms the expected self-reference effect (SRE) in memory, with self-referent encoding strategies yielding superior memory relative to both semantic and other-referent encoding strategies. Consistent with theory and research that suggest self-reference (SR) produces both organized and elaborate processing, the SRE was smaller (a) when SR is compared with other-reference (OR) rather than semantic encoding and (b) when the comparison tasks promote both organization and elaboration. Thus, the SRE appears to result primarily because the self is a well-developed and often-used construct that promotes elaboration and organization of encoded information. The authors discuss the implications of these and other findings for theories of the SRE and for future research.
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“People’s memory for what is associated with the self is considerably better than people’s memory for what is dissociated with the self (Symons and Johnson, 1997).”
From Synchrony in Psychotherapy: A Review and an Integrative Framework for the Therapeutic Alliance (2016) · cites this paper as Symons and Johnson, 1997
In the citing paper
“Overall this confirmed the presence of the expected self-bias in remembering positive valence trait items [Mu and Han, 2010;Symons and Johnson, 1997] and that this self-bias was significantly weakened by OXT treatment.”
From Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction during trait judgments and reduces medial prefrontal cortex responses: Oxytocin Blurs Self-Other Distinction (2016) · cites this paper as Symons and Johnson, 1997
Citations
Cites
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Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory
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Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
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The Dynamic Self-Concept: A Social Psychological Perspective
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Attention and Self-Regulation : A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Morris, S. B., & DeShon, R. P. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.105 · Cited by 2,502
“For example, in a meta-analysis on the effects of self-reference on memory (Symons & Johnson, 1997), studies using a single-group pretest–posttest design produced a mean effect size that was very close to the estimate from studies that included a control group.”
MethodFinding the self? An event-related fMRI study
Kelley, W. M., Macrae, C. N., Wyland, C. L., Caglar, S., Inati, S., & Heatherton, T. F. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/08989290260138672 · Cited by 1,606
“The message that has emerged from subsequent studies that have investigated the relationship between self and memory function is a consistent one—self-reference permits superior memory relative to other semantic encoding tasks (see Symons & Johnson , 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialOne Hundred Years of Social Psychology Quantitatively Described
Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.4.331 · Cited by 1,558
Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., Hyde, J. S., & Hankin, B. L. (2004) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.5.711 · Cited by 1,369
Peterson, R. A. (2001) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/323732 · Cited by 1,258
Metadata
- Authors
- Symons, C. S., & Johnson, B. T.
- Affiliations
- Houghton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Symons, Cynthia S.
- ORCID
- Johnson, Blair T.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1997
- Volume
- 121
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 371-394
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2167106897
- Cited by
- 1,361
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 79 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 72 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 65 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 2.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- OpenCommons - UConn (University of Connecticut) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Syracuse University
- National Institutes of Health (7k21mh001377-06)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH01377-01)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- self-reference effect, semantic encoding, elaborative processing, information organization, encoding strategies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Recall, Self Concept, Verbal Learning
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