The DOI matches its Crossref record; 170 of the 170 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A conceptual and psychometric framework for distinguishing categories and dimensions
Abstract
An important, sometimes controversial feature of all psychological phenomena is whether they are categorical or dimensional. A conceptual and psychometric framework is described for distinguishing whether the latent structure behind manifest categories (e.g., psychiatric diagnoses, attitude groups, or stages of development) is category-like or dimension-like. Being dimension-like requires (a) within-category heterogeneity and (b) between-category quantitative differences. Being category-like requires (a) within-category homogeneity and (b) between-category qualitative differences. The relation between this classification and abrupt versus smooth differences is discussed. Hybrid structures are possible. Being category-like is itself a matter of degree; the authors offer a formalized framework to determine this degree. Empirical applications to personality disorders, attitudes toward capital punishment, and stages of cognitive development illustrate the approach.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Dimensional approaches generally aim for within-category heterogeneity and between-category quantitative differences (De Boeck et al., 2005), goals that can also be challenging for SA/A (Heyne et al., 2019).”
From Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1) (2019) · cites this paper as De Boeck et al., 2005
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Categorical approaches broadly aim for within-category homogeneity and between-category qualitative differences (De Boeck et al., 2005), goals that have been somewhat elusive for SA/A (DiBartolo and Braun, 2017).”
From Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1) (2019) · cites this paper as De Boeck et al., 2005
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Estimating the Dimension of a Model
Schwarz, G. (1978) · The Annals of Statistics · doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136 · Cited by 47,033
An Introduction to the Bootstrap
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1994) · doi:10.1201/9780429246593 · Cited by 40,500
An Introduction to the Bootstrap
Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1993) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-4541-9 · Cited by 21,230
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Cohen, P., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410606266 · Cited by 20,870
Information Theory and an Extension of the Maximum Likelihood Principle
Akaike, H. (1998) · Springer series in statistics · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-1694-0_15 · Cited by 18,636
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things
Lakoff, G. P. (1987) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226471013.001.0001 · Cited by 13,358
Ambrose, A., Wittgenstein, L., & Anscombe, G. E. M. (1954) · Philosophy and Phenomenological Research · doi:10.2307/2103745 · Cited by 12,289
Rozeboom, W. W., Lord, F. M., Novick, M. R., & Birnbaum, A. (1969) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162101 · Cited by 8,012
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences.
Henry, N. W., Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. R. (1977) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2064799 · Cited by 7,242
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Birnbaum, 1968, Some latent trait models., 397
- Eagly, 1993, The psychology of attitudes.
- 10.1037/0021-843X.104.3.411 · DOI
- Meehl, 1973, MAXCOV-HITMAX: A taxonomic search method for loose genetic syndromes., 200
- Meehl, 1982, Taxometric methods., 127
- Thissen, 1997, MULTILOG
- 10.1037/0021-843X.99.1.40 · DOI
- Verhelst, 1994, OPLM
- Wu, 1998, ACER Conquest: Generalized item response modelling software
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–131 of 131
Methodological Issues in Categorical Data Analysis
Hagenaars, J. A. P. (2015) · Methodology · doi:10.1027/1614-2241/a000102 · Cited by 3
Joseph, S., Kane, M. J., Pepper, C. M., Nieuwsma, J. A., Simms, L. J., Tanner, M., Haaga, D. A. F., & Tennen, H. A. (2006) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1207/s15366359mea0403_2 · Cited by 3
A Model and its Fit lie in the Eye of the Beholder: Long Live the Sum ScorePreprint
Edelsbrunner, P. A. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8tq7p · Cited by 3
Michell, J. (2009) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-269-020251009 · Cited by 2
Pouncey, C. L. (2005) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000183527.54227.56 · Cited by 2
van der Molen, M. W., Snellings, P., Aravena, S., González, G. F., Zeguers, M. H. T., Verwimp, C., & Tijms, J. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14010072 · Cited by 3
Natural Kinds as Homeorhetic Dynamic Systems
Serpico, D., & Guala, F. (2025) · The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1086/735530 · Cited by 2
“…what appears as a continuous cluster at a particular point in time, in other words, is better described as a mixed bunch of stages in a set of potentially heterogeneous trajectories (other examples can be found in the distribution of IQ values, see De Boeck et al. 2005; Michell 2012; Serpico 2018).”
Granero, R., Ezpeleta, L., de la Osa, N., & Domenech, J. M. (2009) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.25.4.274 · Cited by 2
Borkenau, P., & Tandler, N. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25023-x · Cited by 4
Multilevel Factor Mixture Modeling for Within-Level Constructs: A Simulation Study
Kim, E., Cao, C., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2025.2543288 · Cited by 1
“De Boeck et al. (2005) extensively discussed qualitative vs. quantitative differences and different types of latent structures in the item response theory framework (for example, qualitative differences defined as no discrimination equivalence and no location equivalence, akin to measurement non…”
Jing, S., Awang, M. M., & Pa, W. A. M. W. (2025) · Physical Education of Students · doi:10.15561/20755279.2025.0506 · Cited by 1
“Concurrently, the stepped care model has emerged as a research framework in psychology, education, and sports medicine, advocating that individuals receive interventions commensurate with their symptom severity [18, 19, 20].”
Mehari, K. R. (2014) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/t7ev-k894 · Cited by 1
Köhn, H. (2010) · Computational Statistics & Data Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.csda.2010.03.012 · Cited by 1
“The complexity of the three-way data layout prevents an immediate application of analytic methods suitable for a single proximity matrix (see Coppi and Bolasco, 1989; Kroonenberg, 2008; Law et al., 1984; Smilde et al., 2004).”
MethodBlack, P., Wilson, M. R., & Yao, S.-Y. (2011) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1080/15366367.2011.604275 · Cited by 1
Self-citationThe generalized interpersonal theory of personality and psychopathology
Acton, G. S. (2004) · RIT Scholar Works (Rochester Institute of Technology) · Cited by 1
Self-citationATHENA for Memory-Based InferencePreprint
Ralston, R. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b6j9n · Cited by 1
Rupp, A. A. (2012) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1080/15366367.2012.742389
“Overall, it felt to me that the authors of the focus article strove to adapt or extend, both conceptually and empirically, the work of De Boeck, Wilson, and Acton (2005).”
BackgroundMethodBetween-Group Differences and Taxometrics
Hidegkuti, I., & de Boeck, P. A. L. (2007) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.100.1.211-230
For whom money matters less : patterns of connectedness and psychosocial resilience
Richards, L. (2015) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)
Spelling in primary school: Mixture IRT-models as a diagnostic tool
Nijlen, D. V., & Janssen, R. (2008) · Lirias
Extensions and Applications of Multilevel and Multidimensional Item Response Models
Choi, I. H. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Structure of Perfectionism and Relation to Career Indecision
Rohlfing, J. E. (2013)
A strategy for the assessment of competencies in higher education: The BEAR assessment system
Wilson, M. R., & Draney, K. (2013)
Self-citationModeling Rater Effects and Complex Learning Progressions using Item Response Models
Shin, H. J. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
von Davier, M. (2021) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-021-09790-1
“…most plausible attempt to summarize data, even though there is ample evidence that the ‘nature’ of a latent variable, i.e., whether it can be assumed to be discrete or continuous, often cannot be uniquely determined (e.g., Gangestad & Snyder, 1985; De Boeck et al., 2005; von Davier et al., 2012).”
BackgroundActon, G. S., Beverly, S. G., Okech, D., Books, S., Jesuit, D. K., Lichter, D. T., & Smeeding, T. M. (2005) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1207/s15366359mea0304_2
Self-citationMcCarty, S. M., & Dunsmore, J. C. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03806-4
Stamovlasis, D., Vaiopoulou, J., Stavropoulou, G., & Παπαγιαννοπούλου, Θ. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1499960
Scoring and Scaling Items from Innovative Domains
von Davier, M., Shin, H. J., & Khorramdel, L. (2025) · Methodology of educational measurement and assessment · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-90951-1_17
Psychological Factors Conditioning Pro-Environmental BehaviorAbstractPreprint
Alemán, A. H., Cruz‐Pérez, N., & Cerezal, J. C. S. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5749864
Metadata
- Authors
- De Boeck, P., Wilson, M., & Acton, G. S.
- ORCID
- Wilson, Mark
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2005
- Volume
- 112
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 129-158
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2149002740
- Cited by
- 131
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2025: 6 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 15.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (1f32da014739-01)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P50DA009253, F32-DA14739)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Keywords
- latent structure, hybrid structures, psychiatric diagnosis, personality disorders, attitudes toward capital punishment, cognitive development stages
- MeSH terms
- Capital Punishment, Cognition, Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychology, Psychometrics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review