Self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Distribution, ontogeny, and patterns of emergence.
Abstract
Investigations of mirror self-recognition (SR) in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have had small samples and divergent methods. In Experiment 1, 105 chimpanzees (10 months to 40 years of age) were observed for signs of SR across 5 days of continuous mirror exposure. In Experiments 2 and 3, negative SR adult and adolescent chimpanzees were saturated with mirror exposure in efforts to facilitate SR and a longitudinal study was conducted with a number of young subjects. In Experiment 4, mark tests were administered to groups of positive SR, negative SR, and ambiguous SR subjects. In Experiment 5, we explored whether previous positive SR reports in young chimpanzees were artifacts of increased arousal during mirror exposure. Results suggest that SR typically emerges at 4.5-8 years of age, at the population level the capacity declines in adulthood, and in group settings SR typically occurs within minutes of a subject's exposure to a mirror.
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Belugas' proclivity for spontaneous imitation provides strong evidence for a high level of social awareness in this species.
“Their proclivity for the spontaneous imitation of others provides strong evidence for a high level of social awareness in this species and advanced social awareness has been linked with the emergence of mirror self-directed behavior and MSR in children and other species [2,3,47].”
From Evidence for mirror self-recognition in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
Advanced social awareness has been linked with the emergence of mirror self-directed behavior and MSR in children and other species.
“Their proclivity for the spontaneous imitation of others provides strong evidence for a high level of social awareness in this species and advanced social awareness has been linked with the emergence of mirror self-directed behavior and MSR in children and other species [2,3,47].”
From Evidence for mirror self-recognition in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
Mirror self-recognition has been demonstrated in chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos, gorillas, bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, and Eurasian magpies.
“Tests of mirror self-recognition (MSR) have provided behavioral evidence of a high level of self-awareness in humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas, bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, magpies, and to some extent in the cleaner wrasse.”
From Evidence for mirror self-recognition in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (2026) · cites this paper as [2]
The age-dependent performance in the www-memory task is similar to the one reported for chimpanzees in the mirror self-recognition (MSR) task.
“First, this age-dependent performance is similar to the one reported for chimpanzees in the mirror self-recognition (MSR) task (Povinelli et al. 1993), a task typically used to assess the development of self-concept in human infants (Amsterdam 1972; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979; Nielsen and Dissanayake 2004).”
From Keeping track of time: evidence for episodic-like memory in great apes (2010) · cites this paper as Povinelli et al. 1993
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References 47 · Cited by 309
- Authors
- Povinelli, D. J., Rulf, A. B., Landau, K. R., & Bierschwale, D. T.
- ORCID
- Povinelli, Daniel J.
- Venue
- Journal of Comparative Psychology
- Published
- 1993
- Volume
- 107
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 347-372
- ISSN
- 0093-4127 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2087
- 0735-7036
- OpenAlex
- W2021372526
- Cited by
- 309
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 30.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of comparative psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Center for Research Resources (RR-03583-05)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- mirror self-recognition, chimpanzees, ontogeny, mirror exposure, mark test, self-awareness
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Animals, Arousal, Attention, Awareness, Body Image, Pan troglodytes, Concept Formation, Discrimination Learning, Exploratory Behavior, Female, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Peer Group, Self Concept, Social Environment, Visual Perception
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