Testing invariance of ethnic-racial discrimination and identity measures for adolescents across ethnic-racial groups and contexts.
Open accessAbstract
= 1,055) United States, the current study tested invariance of 4 widely used measures, including Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000), Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (Douglass & Umaña-Taylor, 2015), Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity-Teen (Scottham, Sellers, & Nguyên, 2008), and Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure-Other Group Orientation (Phinney, 1992). Results from multigroup confirmatory factor analyses supported configural and metric but not scalar invariance across Asian, Black, Latinx, Native, and White American adolescents, and across geographic regions for Asian, Black, and White American adolescents. Results demonstrate the utility of these measures to examine whether associations with theoretically related constructs differ across groups and regions, but specific items preclude mean-level group difference tests for certain groups. Supporting convergent validity across ethno-racially diverse adolescents in 2 regions, scores on ethnic-racial discrimination from peers, adults in school, and other adults in society were each positively associated with depressive symptoms; ERI exploration, resolution, affirmation, centrality, and public regard scores were each positively associated with self-esteem; and other group orientation scores were positively associated with ERI achievement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In a recent study, white adolescents reported systematically lower ERI than BIPOC adolescents, though the factor structure of multiple ERI measures was equivalent across groups.
“In a recent study (Sladek et al., 2020), the authors found that white adolescents reported systematically lower ERI than BIPOC adolescents, though the factor structure of multiple ERI measures was equivalent across groups.”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Sladek et al., 2020
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context
Moffitt, U., & Rogers, L. O. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12762 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“In a recent study (Sladek et al., 2020), the authors found that white adolescents reported systematically lower ERI than BIPOC adolescents, though the factor structure of multiple ERI measures was equivalent across groups.”
BackgroundUmaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2021) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000519631 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationCoping with Discrimination from Peers and Adults: Implications for Adolescents’ School Belonging
Montoro, J. P., Kilday, J. E., Rivas‐Drake, D., Ryan, A. M., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2020) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-020-01360-5 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationBeyond Ethnicity: Applying Helms’s White Racial Identity Development Model Among White Youth
Moffitt, U., Rogers, L. O., & Dastrup, K. R. H. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12645 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Ceccon, C., Schachner, M. K., Lionetti, F., Pastore, M., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Moscardino, U. M. M. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13944 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationWantchekon, K. A., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01451-x · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationWu, T., Hsieh, H., Chow, C. M., Yang, X., Resnicow, K., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2022) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101800 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Sladek, M. R., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Wantchekon, K. A., McDermott, E. R., & Updegraff, K. A. (2020) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-020-01166-8 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationMoffitt, U., & Syed, M. (2020) · Identity. An International Journal of Theory and Research · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w5czq · Cited by 21
Ghavami, N., Kogachi, K., & Graham, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.503846 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The race/ethnicity discrimination subscales for peer and adult perpetrators show strong measurement invariance across multiple adolescent samples representing the racial/ethnic groups included in this study (Sladek et al., 2020).”
BackgroundUmaña‐Taylor, A. J., Sladek, M. R., & Safa, M. D. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-01955-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Previous work has provided evidence for the validity and reliability of the full scale with an ethnoracially diverse sample of adolescents (Sladek et al., 2020).”
Self-citationLatinx Adolescents' Assets, Risks, and Developmental Pathways: A Decade in Review and Looking Ahead
Azmitia, M. (2021) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12686 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Martinez‐Fuentes, S., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Jager, J., Seaton, E. K., & Sladek, M. R. (2020) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2020.1784177 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Configural and metric invariance for this scale has been demonstrated in prior work among Black and Latino adolescents (Sladek et al., 2020).”
ResultSelf-citationKornienko, O., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Hernández, M. M., & Ha, T. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02052-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The scale ’ s three-factor structure has been supported with Latino adolescents, and strong measurement invariance has been found across ethnoracial groups in a sample of high school students (Sladek et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSatterthwaite‐Freiman, M., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2023) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000534965 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Of the few studies, those that utilize existing ERI measures show that White youth tend to score lower on multiple components of ERI (i.e., exploration, resolution, and centrality) than their peers of color (e.g., Sladek et al., 2020).”
Self-citationCeccon, C., Moscardino, U. M. M., Altoè, G., Lionetti, F., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02022-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The scale has shown good reliability and validity across culturally diverse adolescent samples (Sladek et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultSelf-citationThe Role of Ethnic-Racial Identity and Self-Esteem in Intergroup Contact Attitudes
Wantchekon, K. A., McDermott, E. R., Jones, S. M., Satterthwaite‐Freiman, M., Baldeh, M., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01819-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“measurement equivalence for this scale across Black, White, Asian, and Latinx youth across sites (Sladek et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationSatterthwaite‐Freiman, M., Sladek, M. R., Wantchekon, K. A., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2022) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01680-8 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Additionally, there was evidence for equivalent item factor loadings with the current version of the scale across various ethnic-racial groups, including White adolescents, when examined in the larger study (Sladek et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationSanford, K., & Pizzuto, A. E. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01350-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Evaluating a School-Based Intervention on Adolescents’ Ethnic-racial Identity in Sweden
Abdullahi, A. K., Syed, M., Juang, L. P., Berne, S., Hwang, C. P., & Frisén, A. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02046-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Similar reliability levels were found for the centrality scale in U.S.- based studies with youth with varying ethnic-racial self-identi fi cations (e.g., Sladek et al., 2020).”
ResultZhou, A. N., Huang, K. J., & Howard, T. L. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2023.04.002 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Wantchekon, K. A., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., McDermott, E. R., Sladek, M. R., Rivas‐Drake, D., Agi, A. C., & Satterthwaite‐Freiman, M. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220987599 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationGillespie, S., Morency, M. M., Chan, E. Y. Y., & Ferguson, G. M. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02039-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…measured with the Exploration and Resolution subscales of the Ethnic Identity Scale (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2004), which has been used (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2018) and validated (Sladek et al., 2020) in samples that include youth from Asian, Black, Latine, Native, and White ethnic-racial backgrounds.”
Agi, A. C., Wantchekon, K. A., Rivas‐Drake, D., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01790-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Configural invariance was assessed by examining the 1-factor structure of each measure across the pooled sample in addition to the proposed 3-factor structure for the EIS-B and the proposed 2-factor structure for the MIBI-T, in line with Sladek et al. (2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationStanding on the shoulders of a giant: The legacy of Robert M. Sellers.
Williams, A. D., Aronson, K. M., Chavous, T. M., Cooke, D., Glover, C. S., Hoggard, L. S., Kohn-Wood, L., Lesane-Brown, C. L., Lewis-McCoy, R. L., Martin, P. P., et al. (2023) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001129 · Cited by 6
“A psychometric examination of racial centrality and public regard suggested caution in comparing mean scores between White and ethnic – racial minoritized adolescents but supported within-group studies examining these constructs (Sladek et al., 2020).”
Examining ethnic-racial identity development and adjustment among Colombian adolescents
Umaña-Taylor, A., Sladek, M. R., Safa, M., Tirado, L. U. U., & Vega, L. M. T. (2024) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2024.101672 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationConstante, K., Demidenko, M. I., Huntley, E. D., Rivas‐Drake, D., Keating, D. P., & Beltz, A. M. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12760 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationGalán, C. A., Willis, H. A., Polanco-Roman, L. A., Howard, L. Y., Morales, I., Rudrabhatla, A., Santana, A. M., & Satinsky, E. N. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2025.2497085 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Adolescents completed a revised 11-item version of the Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (ADDI; Fisher et al., 2000; Sladek et al., 2020).”
Bardach, L., Emslander, V., Schumacher, A., Kopatz, M., Viccari, A., Sakaki, M., Wang, M., & Schwarzenthal, M. (2026) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2026.101265 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cotton, M. R., Conroy, H. E., Silva, K., Amarneh, D. Y., Zvolensky, M. J., Obasi, E. M., & Viana, A. G. (2025) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984251358622 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“The MIBI-t has demonstrated generalizability and strong psychometric performance in diverse adolescent samples (e.g., Cunningham et al., 2019; Sladek et al., 2020; Thomas & Serpell, 2022).”
InfluentialWu, T., Hsieh, H., Resnicow, K., Carter, P. M., Chow, C. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-023-01874-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The AARE was adapted from the Racial/Ethnic Discrimination Scale [32] and the Major Experiences of Discrimination (MED) [33].”
Allison, K. K., Meca, A., Cruz, B., Wright, A., & Veniegas, T. K. (2023) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968231214592 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Although Sladek and colleagues (2020) were able to establish partial scalar invariance, it is important to note that the EIS-B is a distinct measure from the EIS.”
ResultInfluentialEffects of Receiving Genetic Ancestry Results on Emerging Adults’ Ethnic-Racial Identity Affirmation
Williams, C. D., Smith, T. H., Adkins, A. E., Walker, C. J., Santana, A., Lozada, F. T., Su, J., & Dick, D. M. (2021) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968211020880 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, among predominantly White males 40–65 years old who had previously taken a genetic ancestry test (Wagner & Weiss, 2012), approximately half of participants reported that the results strengthened their sense of ERI (40% reported that it did not strengthen their sense of ERI and 10% reported feeling unsure;…”
BackgroundInfluentialVillaume, S. C., Sladek, M. R., Jones, S. K., Nwafor, E. E., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Adam, E. K. (2026) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2026.101977 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationGonzález, I. E., Wantchekon, K. A., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Rivas‐Drake, D. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02260-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Centrality is also important to study because of its promotive and protective capabilities — research suggests high centrality is promotive of Black and Latine youth ’ s developmental assets, such as self-esteem (Sladek et al., 2020) and academic adjustment (Thomas et al., 2022).”
Self-citationMedina, M. A., Sigal, M., Vang, T. M., Bellmore, A. D., Witkow, M. R., & Nishina, A. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02241-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Both private regard (Gharaei et al., 2019) and public regard (Sladek et al., 2020) have been linked to positive cross-group experiences among diverse students in school settings.”
Onyeka, O. “., Cheng, J. S.-C., Sanei, S., Clark, S. L., Pinciotti, C. M., Guzick, A. G., Storch, E. A., Stewart, S. M., Sandoval, J. F., Taylor, L., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.120298
Socialization of Gender Public Regard: Family Conversations, Practices and Routines
Halim, M. L., Gutiérrez, B. C., Ortiz-Payne, M., Han, K., Ahrens, C. E., & Leaper, C. (2025) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-025-01581-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“How social identities are regarded by others can be impactful towards shaping one’s personal identity and beliefs about intergroup dynamics and power systems (Sell-ers et al., 1998; Sladek et al., 2020).”
Ethnic-racial identity among White adolescents: Patterns and links to adjustment
Wantchekon, K. A., Satterthwaite‐Freiman, M., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2025) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2025.101772 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociations between Adolescents’ Exposure to Online Racism and Substance Use
Dunn, C. B., Coleman, J. N., Smith, P. N., & Mehari, K. (2025) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2025.01.018 · Cited by 1
Cultural risk & adaptation: Contributions to psychopathology by social position
Gusman, M. S., Grimm, K. J., Wormley, A. S., Sasser, J., Doane, L. D., Park, H. J., & Cohen, A. B. (2024) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2024.101699 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ugwu, D., Masud, N., Hansen, A. R., Hegazy, H., Chopak-Foss, J., & Mayo-Gamble, T. L. (2026) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2026.200565
Reinholdsson, T., Frisén, A., Hwang, С. P., Juang, L. P., Stern, P. D., & Syed, M. (2026) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.70197
Testing the Empirical Distinctiveness of Ethnic-Racial and U.S. Identity
Meca, A., Cruz, B., Cruz, I., Hinojosa, C., & Gonzales-Backen, M. A. (2026) · Identity. An International Journal of Theory and Research · doi:10.1080/15283488.2026.2664575
Kosterman, R., Epstein, M., Halvorson, M. A., Rhew, I. C., Danzo, S., Satchell, A. K., & Pandika, D. M. (2026) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-026-02944-w
Willis, H. A., Polanco-Roman, L. A., & Galán, C. A. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09068-8
“A revised 11-item version of the Adolescent Discrimination Distress Index (ADDI; Sladek et al., 2020; Fisher et al., 2000 ) was used to assess participants’ exposure to offline RD.”
InfluentialHettich, N., Nicolai, M., Dieterle, H., Siegert, C., Kliem, S., Banerjee, M., Brähler, E., Beutel, M. E., & Dreier, M. (2026) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-026-02913-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Validation of the Ethnic Identity Scale With Americans of Arab Heritage
Atari-Khan, R., Azmat, A., Elhedk, F. R., & Han, S. (2026) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00110000251414169
“Moreover, the factor structure and validity of the brief version of the EIS have been veri fi ed across racial-ethnic groups and geographic locations (Agi-Garratt et al., 2023; Sladek et al., 2020).”
Ceccon, C., Moscardino, U. M. M., Forcella, M., Lionetti, F., & Umaña‐Taylor, A. J. (2025) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.70105 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationSuherman, S., & Vidákovich, T. (2024) · The Education and science journal · doi:10.17853/1994-5639-2025-8973
- Authors
- Sladek, M. R., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., McDermott, E. R., Rivas-Drake, D., & Martinez-Fuentes, S.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Assessment
- Published
- 2020-06
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 509-526
- ISSN
- 1040-3590 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-134X
- OpenAlex
- W3008668683
- Cited by
- 57
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 7
- FWCI
- 9.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (BCS 1625277, BCS 1625196)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- measurement invariance, racial and ethnic discrimination, ethnic identity, adolescents, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, cross-cultural measurement, Asian American adolescents, Latinx adolescents, Native American youth
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Ethnicity, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Male, Psychological Tests, Social Identification, United States, Reproducibility of Results, Racism
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
