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How deep is the brain? The shallow brain hypothesis
Open accessAbstract
Deep learning and predictive coding architectures commonly assume that inference in neural networks is hierarchical. However, largely neglected in deep learning and predictive coding architectures is the neurobiological evidence that all hierarchical cortical areas, higher or lower, project to and receive signals directly from subcortical areas. Given these neuroanatomical facts, today's dominance of cortico-centric, hierarchical architectures in deep learning and predictive coding networks is highly questionable; such architectures are likely to be missing essential computational principles the brain uses. In this Perspective, we present the shallow brain hypothesis: hierarchical cortical processing is integrated with a massively parallel process to which subcortical areas substantially contribute. This shallow architecture exploits the computational capacity of cortical microcircuits and thalamo-cortical loops that are not included in typical hierarchical deep learning and predictive coding networks. We argue that the shallow brain architecture provides several critical benefits over deep hierarchical structures and a more complete depiction of how mammalian brains achieve fast and flexible computational capabilities.
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“In the typical mammalian brain, however, recurrent loops between the subcortex and regions of the cortex are a vital and almost universal feature of processing [85].”
From Phenomenal interface theory: a model for basal consciousness (2025) · cites this paper as [85]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Suzuki, M., Pennartz, C. M. A., & Aru, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- University of Tartu (EE)
- Corresponding author
- Aru, Jaan
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2023-10-27
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 778-791
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- OpenAlex
- W4387996733
- Cited by
- 79
- References
- 224
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 4
- FWCI
- 2.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- handle.uba.uva.nl
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Brain Science Foundation
- European Commission (HORIZON2020, 945539)
- Eesti Teadusagentuur (PSG728)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Neural Networks and Applications
- Keywords
- thalamocortical loop, cortical microcircuits, predictive coding, deep learning architectures, neural network architecture, massively parallel computing
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Mammals, Neural Networks, Computer
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