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SU-8 force sensing pillar arrays for biological measurements
Open accessAbstract
The generation and sensation of mechanical force plays a role in many dynamic biological processes, including touch sensation. This paper presents a two-axis micro strain gauge force sensor constructed from multiple layers of SU-8 and metal on quartz substrates. The sensor was designed to meet requirements for measuring tactile sensitivity and interaction forces exerted during locomotion by small organisms such as the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The device is transparent and compatible with light microscopes, allowing behavioral experiments to be combined with quantitative force measurements. For the first time, we have characterized the scale of interaction forces generated in wild-type C. elegans in probing and responding to their environment during locomotion. The device features sub-microN force resolution from 1 Hz to 1 kHz, >25 microN range, kHz acquisition rates and biocompatibility.
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The force exerted by C. elegans as it moves against a microfluidic pillar was recently reported to be 2.5 ± 2.5 μN.
“Indeed, the force exerted by C. elegans as it moves against a microfluidic pillar was recently reported to be 2.5 ± 2.5 μN (Doll et al., 2009).”
From Gait Modulation in C. elegans: An Integrated Neuromechanical Model (2012) · cites this paper as Doll et al., 2009
The Results and discussion (C. elegans force generation) report a mean peak contact force of 2.5 ± 2.5 μN for freely moving wild-type worms. The Experimental setup and preparation section describes worms contacting force-sensing pillars positioned near an agar surface; it does not establish that the pillars were microfluidic. (LLM, conf=0.87)
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Citations
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“Indeed, the force exerted by C. elegans as it moves against a microfluidic pillar was recently reported to be 2.5 ± 2.5 μN (Doll et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialNeurobiology of Caenorhabditis elegans Locomotion: Where Do We Stand?
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BackgroundMicrofluidics as a tool for C. elegans research
San‐Miguel, A., & Lu, H. (2013) · WormBook · doi:10.1895/wormbook.1.162.1 · Cited by 118
“Microfabrication has also been used in a force sensing device where SU-8 pillars attached to cantilevers are used to measure the forces exerted by crawling worms causing pillar deflection (Doll et al., 2009).”
MethodMicrofluidics-enabled phenotyping, imaging, and screening of multicellular organisms
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Propulsive force measurements and flow behavior of undulatory swimmers at low Reynolds number
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MEMS sensors and microsystems for cell mechanobiology
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“Images reprinted from [61] reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.”
InfluentialMicrofluidic laboratories for C. elegans enhance fundamental studies in biology
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“However [41] measured the force for a series of brief worm nose touching with and body wrapping around the SU-8 pillar free end, with each contact event less than 500 ms.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialUndulatory Locomotion of Caenorhabditis elegans on Wet Surfaces
Shen, X., Sznitman, J., Krajacic, P., Lamitina, T., & Arratia, P. E. (2012) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2012.05.012 · Cited by 66
“elegans moving in an array of flexible pillar found bending forces ranging from 200 nN to 1000 nN (39), while another experiment of nematodes crawling in glass beads estimated bending forces of ~100 nN (27).”
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“…and soft-lithography for designing and fabricating silicon devices provide such control and have been developed to measure body mechanics and touch sensation in worms (Park et al., 2007; Doll et al., 2009; Park et al., 2011; Petzold et al., 2011; Ghanbari et al., 2012; Petzold et al., 2013).”
Self-citationBioinspired 3-D Tactile Sensor for Minimally Invasive Surgery
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The collective motion of nematodes in a thin liquid layer
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BackgroundFlexible Au nanoparticle arrays induced metal-enhanced fluorescence towards pressure sensors
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“Other efforts have been made to develop tactile sensor array or tactile sensors for applications such as the friction and hardness measurements [14], metrology [15], biological measurements [16], pressure [17], however, these devices were not viable for touchscreen applications owing to”
BackgroundForce microscopy of the Caenorhabditis elegans embryonic eggshell
Krenger, R., Burri, J. T., Lehnert, T., Nelson, B., & Gijs, M. (2020) · Microsystems & Nanoengineering · doi:10.1038/s41378-020-0137-3 · Cited by 25
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Microstructuring of SU-8 Resist for MEMS and Bio-Applications
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“elegans migrating between pillars (Doll et al., 2009; Johari, Nock, Alkaisi, & Wang, 2013; Khare, Awasthi, Venkataraman, & Koushika, 2015; Lockery et al., 2008; Park et al., 2008).”
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“Subsequent researchers expanded on this device concept to measure the forces applied by worms during locomotion (Doll et al., 2009; Johari, Nock, Alkaisi, & Wang, 2013).”
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Kim, H.-N., Kang, J., Jin, W.-M., & Moon, J. (2011) · doi:10.1039/c0sm01006e · Cited by 18
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“elegans locomotion has successfully investigated its locomotion, and additionally, its force level [24,28,29], adaptability [30], and behavior [19].”
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“In comparison to other pillar-based techniques, such as magnetic [23] or microelectromechanical [24], [25] force transduction, the devices presented here only require a conventional optical microscope for sensor read-out, which is a common tool found in microbiology laboratories.”
ResultZhou, S.-L., Hu, M., Guo, Q., Cai, X.-B., Xu, X., & Yang, J. (2015) · doi:10.1088/0960-1317/25/2/025005 · Cited by 13
“hydrophobic microfluidic channel) [5–7], sensitive biosensor [8, 9] and highly efficient 3D electrode array with metal plating due to a large surface area [10, 11].”
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Advanced Microfluidic Assays for Caenorhabditis elegans
Bakhtina, N. A., MacKinnon, N., & Korvink, J. G. (2016) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/64283 · Cited by 10
“spacing of posts), applied muscular forces (by measuring the deflection of posts) (Figure 1D) and motility quantification (time-averaged kinetic power over the swimming cycle) [81–90].”
MethodDynamic Tracking of Osteoblastic Cell Traction Force during Guided Migration
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Miniaturized Sensors and Actuators for Biological Studies on Small Model Organisms of Disease
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Piezoresistive Micropillar Sensors for Nano-Newton Cell Traction Force Sensing
Lodhi, I., Gajula, D., Brown, D. K., Roeske, N. T., Myers, D. R., Lam, W. A., Ansari, A., & Brand, O. (2024) · Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems · doi:10.1109/jmems.2024.3382974 · Cited by 5
“Doll et al. [21] present a pillar-based, two-axis lateral force sensor using thin-film deposited, gold strain gauges.”
BackgroundJung, J., Nakajima, M., Takeuchi, M., Huang, Q., & Fukuda, T. (2014) · doi:10.1088/0960-1317/24/3/035012 · Cited by 4
Hulme, S. E., & Whitesides, G. M. (2011) · Angewandte Chemie · doi:10.1002/ange.201005461 · Cited by 6
Automated vision-based force measurement of moving C. elegans
Ghanbari, A., Nock, V., Blaikie, R. J., Chen, X., Chase, J. G., & Wang, W. (2010) · IEEE International Conference on Automation Science and Engineering (CASE) · doi:10.1109/coase.2010.5584225 · Cited by 3
“Very recently, a device with SU-8 based rising pillars [18] has been developed to measure dynamic forces, with each pillar having four 90-degree-spaced gold resistors as strain gauges, which were deployed on its bottom base.”
MethodWang, Y., Wang, X., Ge, A., Hu, L., Du, W., & Liu, B. (2020) · Talanta · doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120900 · Cited by 3
Microwave broadband characterization of aging of SU-8 polymer as CPW substrate
Lucibello, A., Sardi, G., Proietti, E., Marcelli, R., & Bartolucci, G. (2017) · Symposium on Design, Test, Integration and Packaging of MEMS/MOEMS · doi:10.1109/dtip.2017.7984492 · Cited by 3
Fabrication and release of SU-8 structures on soft substrate
Mishra, R., Bhattacharyya, T. K., & Maiti, T. K. (2014) · International Conference on E-Business and E-Government · doi:10.1109/icemelec.2014.7151147 · Cited by 3
Caenorhabditis elegans-on-a-chip: microfluidic platforms for high-resolution imaging and phenotyping
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High resolution polymer coated strain sensors for in-liquid operation
Sorba, F., & Martin-Olmos, C. (2018) · doi:10.1016/j.mee.2018.01.020 · Cited by 2
Lodhi, I., Brown, D. K., Gajula, D., Haile, B., Myers, D. R., Lam, W. A., & Ansari, A. (2026) · Additive Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.addma.2026.105085 · Cited by 1
Microfluidic device for coincident multi-exposure test on C. elegans
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“As a result, various microfluidic devices have been developed for several aims such as phenotyping and sorting [3], long-term culture [4], force measurement [5], laser ablation [6] and external stimulus(e.”
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Döring, V. (2015) · doi:10.3929/ethz-a-010564933 · Cited by 1
“Also force sensors for biological applications consisting of arrays of individual pillars have been demonstrated [145].”
BackgroundMirbagheri, S., Ceniceros, E., Jabbarzadeh, M., McCormick, Z., & Fu, H. (2014) · Experimental mechanics · doi:10.1007/s11340-014-9958-z
“01 N)[3] and nematodes such as C elegans (10 N)[7, 2].”
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Microvalve-based microfluidic device for C. elegans manipulation
Johari, S., Nock, V., Alkaisi, M. M., & Wang, W. (2017) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/1.5002473
Air microjet system for non-contact force application and the actuation of micro-structures
Khare, S. M., & Venkataraman, V. (2015) · doi:10.1088/0960-1317/26/1/017001
Metadata
- Authors
- Doll, J. C., Harjee, N., Klejwa, N., Kwon, R., Coulthard, S. M., Petzold, B., Goodman, M. B., & Pruitt, B. L.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pruitt, Beth L.
- Venue
- Lab on a Chip
- Publisher
- Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1449
- ISSN
- 1473-0189 (ISSN-L)
- 1473-0197
- PMC
- PMC2818990
- OpenAlex
- W2084268388
- Cited by
- 75
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 6.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Lab on a Chip (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS047715, NS047715)
- National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (EB-006745, R01EB006745)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced MEMS and NEMS Technologies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Cellular Mechanics and Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Force Microscopy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- SU-8, force sensing, quartz substrate, Caenorhabditis elegans, locomotion, interaction forces, tactile sensitivity, tactile perception, transparent sensors, biocompatibility, micropillar arrays
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Biomechanical Phenomena, Computer Simulation, Epoxy Compounds, Equipment Design, Locomotion, Polymers, Pressure, Touch, Caenorhabditis elegans, Microfluidic Analytical Techniques
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