Cited by 333Soil Carbon and Nitrogen DynamicsSoil and Water Nutrient DynamicsPlant nutrient uptake and metabolism

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A mechanism of abiotic immobilization of nitrate in forest ecosystems: the ferrous wheel hypothesis

Davidson, Eric A., Chorover, Jon, Dail, D. Bryan·2003·Global Change Biology

DOI 10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00592.x

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Abstract

Forest soils, rather than woody biomass, are the dominant long‐term sink for N in forest fertilization studies and, by inference, for N from atmospheric deposition. Recent evidence of significant abiotic immobilization of inorganic‐N in forest humus layers challenges a previously widely held view that microbial processes are the dominant pathways for N immobilization in soil. Understanding the plant, microbial, and abiotic mechanisms of N immobilization in forest soils has important implications for understanding current and future carbon budgets. Abiotic immobilization of nitrate is particularly perplexing because the thermodynamics of nitrate reduction in soils are not generally favorable under oxic conditions. Here we present preliminary evidence for a testable hypothesis that explains abiotic immobilization of nitrate in forest soils. Because iron (and perhaps manganese) plays a key role as a catalyst, with Fe(II) reducing nitrate and reduced forms of carbon then regenerating Fe(II), we call this ‘the ferrous wheel hypothesis’. After nitrate is reduced to nitrite, we hypothesize that nitrite reacts with dissolved organic matter through nitration and nitrosation of aromatic ring structures, thus producing dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). In addition to ignorance about mechanisms of DON production, little is known about DON dynamics in soil and its fate within ecosystems. Evidence from leaching and watershed studies suggests that DON production and consumption may be largely uncoupled from seasonal biological processes, although biological processes ultimately produce the DOC and reducing power that affect DON formation and the entire N cycle. The ferrous wheel hypothesis includes both biological and abiological processes, but the reducing power of plant‐derived organic matter may build up over seasons and years while the abiotic reduction of nitrate and reaction of organic matter with nitrite may occur in a matter of seconds after nitrate enters the soil solution.

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Vegetation strategies for nitrogen and potassium acquisition along a climate and vegetation gradient: From semi-desert to temperate rainforest
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“…phenol or quinone rings [68], the reaction between NO 2 and phenolic compounds to form organically bound N [69], and the reduction of NO 3 to NO 2 and the subsequent reaction of the latter with dissolved organic matter to form dissolved organic N [70] are all possible mechanisms involved [71].”
Background
Nitrate Transformation and N2O Emission in a Typical Intensively Managed Calcareous Fluvaquent Soil: A 15-Nitrogen Tracer Incubation Study
Qiu, S.-J., Ju, X., Li, L., Christie, P., Ingwersen, J., Stange, C. F., & Streck, T. (2015) · Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis · doi:10.1080/00103624.2015.1044112 · Cited by 5
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“Furthermore, NO 3 − can be converted into organic nitrogen species under specific conditions via the so-called “ferrous wheel mechanism” [55].”
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Retention of early-spring nitrogen in temperate grasslands: The dynamics of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen differ
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Declines in soil-water nitrate in nitrogen-saturated watersheds
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“However, the observed retention in the deeper soil layers may be due to abiotic reac- © 2006 NRC Canada tions with recalcitrant carbon compounds, which can be relatively common in deeper soil horizons compared with labile carbon (Qualls et al. 2002; Davidson et al. 2003).”
BackgroundInfluential
Abiotic Nitrite Incorporation into Organic Matter in Volcanic and Non-Volcanic Soil Within Rainforest Ecosystems
Matus, F., Dyckmans, J., Stock, S., Merino, C., Dippold, M., & Kuzyakov, Y. (2025) · Forests · doi:10.3390/f16060930 · Cited by 3
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“Alternatively, abiotic immobilization of NO 3 − by dissolved organic C, which takes place within a few minutes after N input, might also play a role in influencing the pulse (Davidson et al., 2003).”
Background
Effects of Nitrogen Addition on the Mixed Litter Decomposition in Stipa baicalensis Steppe in Inner Mongolia
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“Some prior studies elucidated that N addition was resistant to decomposition may produce microbial decomposers synthesize phenolic compound or break down litter lignin and other polyphenolic compounds into compounds that react with inorganic N to decomposition [54].”
Background
Low Nitrogen Retention in Soil and Litter under Conditions without Plants in a Subtropical Pine Plantation
Xiong, Y.-M., Xu, X.-L., Zeng, H., Wang, H.-M., Chen, F.-S., & Guo, D. (2015) · doi:10.3390/f6072387 · Cited by 3
Ferrous wheel hypothesis II: Abiotic incorporation of mineral nitrogen into organic pools in volcanic soils of temperate forest ecosystems.
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Strontium transport modeling in high-concentrated nitrate solution in DEEP liquid radioactive waste repository.
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“Water soluble organic carbon (DOC) is recognized as the direct carbon source consumed by microorganisms, and also affects the mobility, transformation, and adsorption of soil organic and inorganic matter (Davidson et al., 2003; Hartley et al., 2010).”
Background
Isolating and Denitrification Activity of the Dominant Bacterium in Chaohu Wetland
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“Recent study of nitrate removal by wetland has focused on different electron donors [5-7], different matrix [8], pH and temperature effect [9, 10].”
Background
Predicting the regional risk of elevated nitrate concentrations below forests in Bavaria by empirical modelling at different spatial scales
Mellert, K. H., Gensior, A., Göttlein, A., Kölling, C., & Rücker, G. (2008) · doi:10.1080/00207230701862405 · Cited by 2
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Background
Biogeochemical Cycling on Land
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Laboratory microcosm evidence for denitrification-driven iodine mobilization in coastal groundwater systems: Implications for salinity and redox control
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Impact of Nitrogen Deposition on Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling in Peatlands Under Land‐Use Change
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“DON-mediated N retention has been widely reported in forest ecosystems (Kreutzer et al. 2009; Šantrůčková et al. 2009; Dail et al. 2001), occurring potentially via abiotic immobilization of NH 4+ and NO 3 − (Thorn and Mikita 1992; Doane 2017; Davidson et al. 2003).”
Identifikation und Regionalisierung von Nitratabbauprozessen in einem Grundwasserleiter – Möglichkeiten und Nutzen für die Wassergewinnung
Jesußek, A., Hansen, C., & Wilde, S. (2016) · Grundwasser · doi:10.1007/s00767-016-0337-9 · Cited by 1
Changing C-N Interactions in the Forest Floor under Chronic N Deposition: Implications for Forest C Sequestration
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From deer abundance to soil properties : a case study in the forests of Haida Gwaii
Maillard, M. (2020) · doi:10.14288/1.0388565 · Cited by 1
“123 mechanisms behind such fixation remain little known (Colman et al., 2007; Davidson et al., 2003).”
Background
The Effect of Geological Media on the Denitrification of Nitrate in Subsurface Environments
Jeon, J., Lee, W.-C., Lee, S.-W., & Kim, S. (2020) · doi:10.7857/jsge.2020.25.s1.016 · Cited by 1
Trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) leaf litter decomposition under simulated nitrogen and sulfur deposition in a mixedwood boreal forest
Wang, Q. (2017) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3f766m80
Removal of arsenic, nitrate, persistent organic pollutants and pathogenic microbes from water using redox-reactive minerals
Bogush, A., Kim, J. K., & Campos, L. (2017) · doi:10.1180/emu-notes.17.12 · Cited by 1
“It was proposed that Fe(II) can reduce nitrate to nitrite, which converts to N 2 and/or might react with dissolved organic matter (Postma et al. , 1991; Davidson et al. , 2003; Burgin and Hamilton, 2007).”
Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation in Groundwater Contaminated by Fertilizers
Tekin, E. (2013) · doi:10.20381/ruor-6561 · Cited by 1
Effect of variable retention harvesting and stand type on soil nitrogen availability in boreal mixedwood forests
Jeřábková, L. (2006) · doi:10.14288/1.0075059 · Cited by 1
Long‐Term Impact of Cropping System and Nitrogen Input Quality on Nitrogen Release and Organic Matter Chemistry
Chahal, S. K., Ma, B., Lauzon, J., Nasielski, J., & Gillespie, A. W. (2026) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.70401
Interactive water-nitrogen effects on tissue-specific maize straw degradation in mollisols
Zhang, Q.-L., Li, X., Chen, G., & Lu, X.-R. (2026) · Industrial crops and products (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2026.123274
Precipitation legacy effects on gross N mineralization and nitrification rates in a Pinyon-Juniper dryland under altered precipitation
Irby, J. C., Krichels, A. H., Spasojevic, M., Jenerette, D., Hanan, E., & Homyak, P. M. (2026) · Biogeochemistry · doi:10.1007/s10533-026-01313-3
“After both 15 min and 4 h, 50 g of soil from the jars were extracted in 150 mL of 2 M KCl for subsequent measurement of NO 3– and NH 4+ concentrations and isotopic composition (Davidson et al. 2003).”
Microbially mediated nitrification improves modeled temperate forest responses to declining nitrogen deposition
Ridgeway, J., Sulman, B., Weber, S., Juice, S. M., & Brzostek, E. (2026) · Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Applied Soil Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2025.106585
A Lecithin Liposome Stimulates Soil Microbial Respiration and Nitrate Immobilization
Butkus, C. R., Weitzman, J. N., Mohammadzadeh, A., Dunn, P. J., Kaye, J. P., Gilbertson, L. M., Little, S. R., & Elliott, E. M. (2025) · ACS Agricultural Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acsagscitech.5c00587 · Cited by 1
Development of Extraction and Analytical Methods of Phenolic Compounds Degraded from Barley Straw in River
Kim, G., Joo, J., Lee, M.-J., Hong, S., Bock, J., Park, J. R., Ahn, C., & Oh, J.-M. (2018) · Journal of Korean Society of Environmental Engineers · doi:10.4491/ksee.2018.40.9.341
“또한, 각 페놀산의 적절한 불확도(uncertainty)를 고려 한 검출 가능한 페놀산 최소 농도를 추정하기 위해, 검량선 의 기울기(S) 및 표준편차(σ)를 이용해 식 (1)과 (2)를 활용 해 검출한계(limit of detection, LOD)와 정량한계(limit of quantification, LOQ)를 산출하였다.”
Influential
Decoding C:N:S:Fe Stoichiometry in Plant Acclimation to Environmental Stress—Mechanisms, Trade-offs, and Future Challenges
Stylianidis, G. P., Pantazopoulou, C., Chorianopoulou, S. N., & Bouranis, D. (2026) · Phyton · doi:10.32604/phyton.2026.085051
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Productivity and carbon budgets of harvested Central Appalachian forests
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“This site-specific retention parameter also accounts for any additional nitrogen that may be acquired through microbial activity, as has been observed but poorly quantified (Davidson et al. 2003).”
Background

Authors: Davidson, E. A., Chorover, J., & Dail, D. B.
Affiliations: Woodwell Climate Research Center (US)
University of Arizona (US)
University of Maine (US)
Corresponding author: Davidson, Eric A.
ORCID: Davidson, Eric A.
Chorover, Jon
Venue: Global Change Biology
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2003-02
Volume: 9
Issue: 2
Pages: 228-236
ISSN: 1354-1013 (ISSN-L)
1365-2486
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00592.x
OpenAlex: W2145062256
Cited by: 333
References: 65
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 29.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 4 d)
Locations: Global Change Biology (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation
Pennsylvania State University
Topics: Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Soil and Water Nutrient Dynamics
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Plant nutrient uptake and metabolism
Keywords: forest soils, dissolved organic nitrogen, dissolved organic matter, nitrogen cycling, forest humus, atmospheric nitrogen deposition

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A mechanism of abiotic immobilization of nitrate in forest ecosystems: the ferrous wheel hypothesis

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