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The Archaeology and Early History of the Persian Gulf

Potts, D. T.·2009·The Persian Gulf in History
DOI 10.1057/9780230618459_2
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Abstract

I n antiquity the Persian Gulf region was culturally diverse, containing at least four major regions and many more subregions. These included (a) southern Iran, from the Shatt al-Arab to the Strait of Hormuz, certainly not a homogenous area and one which is frustratingly understudied; (b) southernmost Mesopotamia; (c) northeastern Arabia (modern Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait), Bahrain, and Qatar, in whose material culture we can recognize enough similarities to justify such a geographical grouping; and (d) southeastern Arabia, the modern UAE, and, although technically outside the Gulf (except for Ras Musandam), Oman. These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

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  • Iron Age societies on the Arabian, Mesopotamian, and Iranian littorals of the Persian Gulf were tightly integrated in networks of political, cultural, and commercial nature.

    “Iron Age societies on the Arabian, Mesopotamian, and Iranian littorals of the Persian Gulf were tightly integrated in networks of political, cultural, and commercial nature”

    From Archaeology of Trade in the Western Indian Ocean, 300 BC–AD 700 (2014) · cites this paper as Potts 2009, pp. 36-39

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  21. P. Bernier, R. Dalongeville, B. Dupuis, and V. de Medwecki, “Holocene Shoreline Variations in the Persian Gulf: Example of the Umm al-Qowayn Lagoon (UAE),” Quaternary International 29–30 (1995): 95–103. · DOI
  22. R. Dalongeville, “Présentation physique générale de l’île de Failaka,” in Y. Calvet and J. Gachet, eds., Failaka fouilles françaises 1986–1988 (TMO 18, 1990), 39.
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  28. D. T. Potts, Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 52;
  29. J. Zarins, “The Early Settlement of Southern Mesopotamia: A Review of Recent Historical, Geological, and Archaeological Research,” JAOS 112 (1992): 55–77. · DOI
  30. J. Zarins, “Archaeological and Chronological Problems within the Greater Southwest Asian Arid Zone, 8500–1850 b.c.,” in Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, ed. R. W. Ehrich, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 42–62.
  31. For example P. Biagi, “An Early Palaeolithic Site Near Saiwan (Sultanate of Oman),” AAE 5 (1994): 81–88.
  32. H. Amirkhanov, “Research on the Palaeolithic and Neolithic of Hadramaut and Mahra,” AAE 5 (1994): 217–28;
  33. H. Amirkhanov, The Paleolithic in South Arabia [in Russian] (Moscow: Nauka, 1991);
  34. N. M. Whalen and K. E. Schatte, “Pleistocene Sites in Southern Yemen,” AAE 8 (1997): 1–10. · DOI
  35. The literature on this topic is vast, but see A. G. Parker, G. Preston, H. Walkington, and M. J. Hodson, “Developing a Framework of Holocene Climatic Change and Landscape Archaeology for the Lower Gulf Region, Southeastern Arabia,” AAE 18 (2007): 125–30.
  36. Also U. Neff, S. J. Burns, A. Mangini, M. Mudelsee, D. Fleitmann, and A. Mattar, “Strong Coherence between Solar Variability and the Monsoon in Oman between 9 and 6 k yr Ago,” Nature 411 (2001): 290–93. · DOI
  37. See for example O. Bar-Yosef and R. H. Meadow, “The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East,” in Last hunters, First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, ed. T. D. Price and A. B. Gebauer (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1995), 39–94.
  38. S. Cleuziou and M. Tosi, “Hommes, climats et environnements de la Péninsule arabique à l’Holocène,” Paléorient 23 (1998): 121–35. · DOI
  39. For example, M. Beech, “The Development of Fishing in the UAE: A Zooarchaeological Perspective,” PFIC (2003), 290–308, with bibliography.
  40. Also M. Beech, In the Land of the Icthyophagi: Modelling Fish Exploitation in the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman from the 5th Millennium B.C. to the Late Islamic Period (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports International Series 1217 [=Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey Monograph 1], 2004.
  41. For example, E. Glover, “Molluscan Evidence for Diet and Environment at Saar in the Early Second Millennium B.C.,” AAE 6 (1995): 157–79.
  42. J. Frazier, “Prehistoric and Ancient Historic Interactions between Humans and Marine Turtles,” in The Biology of Sea Turtles, vol. 2, ed. P. L. Lutz, J. A. Musick, and J. Wyneken (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2003), 3–6.
  43. H. Jousse, M. Faure, C. Guérin, and A. Prieur, “Exploitation des ressources marines au cours des Ve-IVe millénaires: Le site à dugongs de l’île d’Akab (Umm al-Qaiwain, Émirats Arabes Unis),” Paléorient 28 (2002): 43–60; · DOI
  44. H. Jousse and C. Guérin, “Les dugongs (Sirenia, Dugongidae) de l’Holocène ancien d’Umm al-Qaiwain (Émirats Arabes Unis),” Mammalia 67 (2003): 337–47. · DOI
  45. See for example, W. Lancaster and F. Lancaster, “Tribe, Community and the Concept of Access to Resources: Territorial Behaviour in South-East Ja’alan,” in Mobility and Territoriality: Social and Spatial Boundaries among Foragers, Fishers, Pastoralists and Peripatetics, ed. M. J. Asimov and A. Rao (Oxford and Providence, RI: Berg, 1992), 343–63;
  46. J. C. Wilkinson, Water and Tribal Settlement in South-Eastern Arabia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977).
  47. H.-P. Uerpmann, M. Uerpmann, and S. A. Jasim, eds., Funeral Monuments and Human Remains from Jebel al-Buhais (Sharjah, UAE and Tübingen, Germany: Department of Culture and Information and Kerns Verlag, 2006).
  48. For the human remains, see H. Kiesewetter, “Analyses of the Human Remains from the Neolithic Cemetery at al-Buhais 18” (Excavations 1996–2000), 2006, 103–380.
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  50. J. M. Marsh, I. Sagaby, and R. R. Sooley, “A Groundwater Resources Databank in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,” Journal of the Geological Society of London 138 (1981): 599–602. · DOI
  51. D. T. Potts, “Contributions to the Agrarian History of Eastern Arabia lI. The Cultivars,” AAE 5 (1994): 236–75.
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  53. H.-P. Uerpmann, “Problems of archaeo-zoological research in Eastern Arabia,” in P. M. Costa and M. Tosi, eds., Oman Studies: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Oman (Rome: Serie Orientale Roma 63, 1989), 164;
  54. M. Uerpmann, H.-P. Uerpmann, and S. A. Jasim, “Stone Age Nomadism in SE Arabia: Palaeo-Economic Considerations on the Neolithic Site of Al-Buhais 18 in the Emirate of Sharjah, UAE,” PSAS 30 (2000): 229–34;
  55. H. Kallweit, “Remarks on the Late Stone Age in the UAE,” PFIC (2003): 61–63.
  56. H. Kapel, Atlas of the Stone Age Cultures of Qatar (JASP 6, 1967), 18.
  57. See generally M. Uerpmann, “Structuring the Late Stone Age of Southeastern Arabia,” AAE 3 (1992): 65–109;
  58. R. H. Spoor, “Human Population Groups and the Distribution of Lithic Arrowheads in the Arabian Gulf,” AAE 8 (1997): 143–60. · DOI
  59. The bibliography on this topic is long. For earlier material and a good overview of the problem see M. Uerpmann and H.-P. Uerpmann, “‘Ubaid Pottery in the Eastern Gulf — New Evidence from Umm al-Qaiwain (UAE),” AAE 7 (1996): 125–39. · DOI
  60. Again, there is an enormous bibliography on this topic. For the most recent statement see J. Oates, “Ubaid Mesopotamia revisited,” in K. von Folsach, H. Thrane, and I. Thuesen, eds., From Handaxe to Khan: Essays Presented to Peder Mortensen on the Occasion of His 70th birthday (Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2004), 87–104 with extensive bibliography.
  61. R. Carter, “Ubaid-Period Boat Remains from As-Sabiyah: Excavations by the British archaeological expedition to Kuwait,” PSAS 32 (2002): 13–30.
  62. Also J. Connan, R. Carter, H. Crawford, M. Tobey, A. Charrié-Duhaut, D. Jarvie, P. Albrecht, and K. Norman, “A Comparative Geochemical Study of Bituminous Boat Remains from H3, As-Sabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman),” AAE 16 (2005): 21–66.
  63. For more background on Mesopotamia in the Ubaid period, see the papers in E. F. Henrickson and I. Thuesen, eds., Upon This Foundation: The ‘Ubaid Reconsidered (Copenhagen, Denmark: CNIP, 1989), 10;
  64. R. Matthews, The Early Prehistory of Mesopotamia: 500,000 to 4,500 b.c. (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2000).
  65. Cf. W. Dostal, The Traditional Architecture of Ras al- Kh aimah (North) (Wiesbaden, Germany: TAVO, Beheft B 54, 1983).
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  67. P. Biagi, “A Radiocarbon Chronology for the Aceramic Shell-Middens of Coastal Oman,” AAE 5 (1994): 17–31.
  68. R. K. Englund, “Dilmun in the Archaic Uruk Corpus,” in Dilmun: New studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain, ed. D. T. Potts, BBVO 2 (1983), 35–37;
  69. H. J. Nissen, “Ortsnamen in den archaischen Texten aus Uruk,” Or 54 (1985): 226–33.
  70. D. T. Potts, Miscellanea Hasaitica (CNIP 9, 1989);
  71. J. Zarins, “Eastern Saudi Arabia and External Relations: Selected Ceramic, Steatite and Textual evidence—3500–1900 b.c.,” in South Asian Archaeology 1985, ed. K. Frifelt and P. Sørensen (Copenhagen, Denmark: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Occasional Paper 4, 1989): 74–103.
  72. The texts can be found in several different compilations. Perhaps the most convenient source for all of the texts relating to Dilmun (and Magan) is W. Heimpel, “Das untere Meer,” ZA 77 (1987): 22–91. · DOI
  73. The literature on copper ores and copper metallurgy in Oman is large. For a convenient source with full bibliography, see now L. R. Weeks, Early Metallurgy of the Persian Gulf Technology, Trade and the Bronze Age World (Boston and Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2003). · DOI
  74. D. T. Potts, “Eastern Arabia and the Oman Peninsula during the Late Fourth and Early Third Millennium b.c.,” in Ğamdat Nasr: Period or Regional Style?, ed. U. Finkbeiner and W. Röllig (Wiesbaden, Germany: TAVO, Beiheft B 62, 1986), 121–70.
  75. Occupation at the settlement of Hili 8 may have begun around 3000 B.C., coeval with the Hafit tomb tradition, but I have queried the C14 dates and suggested these may have been run on charcoal from timber that was already old when it was used. For the arguments, see D. T. Potts, “Re-writing the Late Prehistory of Southeastern Arabia: A Reply to Jocelyn Orchard,” Iraq 59 (1997): 63–71. · DOI
  76. The argument has been made for the later Umm an-Nar graves and would apply to the Hafit graves as well since these are also collective, albeit involving fewer individuals. See K. W. Alt, W. Vach, K. Frifelt, and M. Kunter, “Familienanalyse in kupferzeitlichen Kollektivgräbern aus Umm al-Nar, Abu Dhabi,” AAE 6 (1995): 65–80. · DOI
  77. There is a very large bibliography on Umm an-Nar tombs. For a recent discussion with extensive bibliography see S. Blau, “Fragmentary Endings: A Discussion of 3rd-Millennium b.c. Burial Practices in the Oman Peninsula,” Antiquity 75 (2001): 557–70. · DOI
  78. On the skeletal remains in these tombs and what they can tell us, see S. Blau, “Limited yet informative: Pathological alterations observed on human skeletal remains from third and second millennia b.c. collective burials in the United Arab Emirates,” International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 11 (2001): 173–205. · DOI
  79. Named after Mortella on Corsica, these round towers are attested as early as the fifteenth century. They became particularly popular in the Napoleonic era. With a height of up to 12 meters and extremely thick walls, these towers could withstand cannon fire. An elevated surface near the top served as a gun platform. See S. Sutcliffe, Martello Towers (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1972).
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  84. A. Millard, “Cypriot Copper in Babylonia, c. 1745 b.c.,” JCS 25 (1973): 211–13.
  85. See, for example, D. T. Potts, Ancient Magan: The Secrets of Tell Abraq (London: Trident, 2000);
  86. D. T. Potts, “Tepe Yahya, Tell Abraq and the chronology of the Bampur sequence,” Iranica Antiqua 38 (2003): 1–24. · DOI
  87. D. T. Potts, “Anshan, Liyan and Magan c. 2000 b.c.,” in Yeki bud, yeki nabud: Essays on the Archaeology of Iran in Honor of William M. Sumner, ed. N. Miller and K. Abdi (Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2003), 156–59.
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  89. P. Amiet, L’âge des échanges inter-iraniens, 3500–1700 avant J.-C. (Paris: Notes et documents des Musées de France 11, 1986), 150;
  90. S. Cleuziou, G. Gnoli, C. Robin, and M. Tosi, “Cachets inscrits de la fin du IIIe millénaire av. notre ère à Ras’ al-Junayz, Sultanat d’Oman,” Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres 1994 (1994): 453–68.
  91. S. Cleuziou and M. Tosi, In the Shadow of the Ancestors: The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman (Muscat: Ministry of Heritage and Culture, 2007).
  92. See most recently S. Ratnagar, “Theorizing Bronze-Age Intercultural Trade: The Evidence of the Weights,” Paléorient 29 (2003): 79–92. · DOI
  93. S. Cleuziou, “Early Bronze Age Trade in the Gulf and the Arabian Sea: The Society behind the Boats,” PFIC (2003), 145.
  94. See generally M. Liverani, Akkad, the First World Empire: Structure, Ideology, Traditions (Padua: Sargon, 1993).
  95. See generally D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). · DOI
  96. These texts have been much discussed. See, for example, A. L. Oppenheim, “The Seafaring Merchants of Ur,” JAOS 74 (1954): 6–17. · DOI
  97. H. Waetzoldt, Untersuchungen zur neusumerischen Textilindustrie (Rome: Studi Economici e Tecnologici 1, 1972), 72.
  98. For the classic discussion, see W. F. Leemans, Foreign Trade in the Old Babylonian Period (Leiden, Netherlands: Studia et Documenta ad Iura Orientis Antiqui Pertinentia 6, 1960).
  99. These issues have been discussed by several authors including C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, “Death in Dilmun,” in Bahrain Through the Ages: The Archaeology, ed. H. A. Al Khalifa and M. Rice (London: Kegan Paul International, 1986), 163–65.
  100. See most recently, with earlier bibliography, H. Crawford, Early Dilmun Seals from Saar: Art and Commerce in Bronze Age Bahrain (Ludlow, UK Archaeology International, 2001).
  101. R. H. Brunswig, Jr., A. Parpola, and D. T. Potts, “New Indus type and related seals from the Near East,” in Dilmun: New Studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain, ed. D. T. Potts (BBVO 2, 1983), 101–15.
  102. See in general A. Parpola, Deciphering the Indus Script (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
  103. See, for example, J.-J. Glassner, “Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha: Some Observations on Language, Toponymy, Anthroponymy and Theonymy,” in The Indian Ocean in Antiquity, ed. J. E. Reade (London: Kegan Paul International, 1996), 235–50;
  104. J. Glassner, “Dilmun et Magan: La place de l’écriture,” in Languages and Cultures in Contact: At the Crossroads of Civilizations in the Syro-Mesopotamian Realm, ed. K. Van Lerberghe and G. Voet, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 96 (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters Press en Departement Ossterse Studies, [2000]), 141–42;
  105. D. T. Potts with S. Blau, “Identities in the East Arabian Region,” Mediterranean Archaeology 11 (1998): 27–38.
  106. This topic has been addressed by numerous scholars. See, for example, B. Vogt, “Bronze Age Maritime Trade in the Indian Ocean: Harappan Traits on the Oman Peninsula,” in The Indian Ocean in Antiquity, Reade, 107–32; U. Franke-Vogt, “The Harappans and the West: Some Reflections on Meluhha’s relations to Magan, Dilmun and Mesopotamia,” Bulletin of Archaeology, the University of Kanazawa 20 (1993): 72–101;
  107. D. T. Potts, “South and Central Asian elements at Tell Abraq (Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain, United Arab Emirates), c. 2200 B.C–A.D. 400,” in South Asian Archaeology 1993, vol. 2, ed. A. Parpola and P. Koskikallio (Helsinki, Finland: Annales Academiæ Scientiarum Fennicæ B 271, 1994), 615–28.
  108. G. Weisgerber, “Archäologische und archäometallurgische Untersuchungen in Oman,” Beiträge zur allgemeine und vergleichende Archäologie 2 (1980): 86, Abb. 15.
  109. S. Cleuziou and M. Tosi, “Evidence for the Use of Aromatics in the Early Bronze Age of Oman: Period III at RJ-2 (2300–2200 b.c.),” in Profumi d’Arabia, ed. A. Avanzini (Rome: Saggi di Storia Antica, 1997), 11, Fig. 11.
  110. J. N. Benton, Excavations at Al Sufouh: A Third Millennium Site in the Emirate of Dubai (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1996), 165 and Fig. 197.
  111. L. de Meyer, “Een Tilmoenit te Suse,” Orientalia Gandensia 3 (1966): 115–17;
  112. M. Lambert, “Tablette de Suse avec cachet du Golfe,” Revue d’Assyriologie 70 (1976): 71–72.
  113. Potts, “South and Central Asian elements at Tell Abraq,” 617; R. A. Carter, “Saar and its external relations: New evidence for interaction between Bahrain and Gujarat during the early second millennium b.c.,” AAE 12 (2001): 183–201.
  114. J. Eidem and F. Højlund, “Trade or Diplomacy? Assyria and Dilmun in the Eighteenth Century b.c.,” World Archaeology 24 (1993): 441–48. · DOI
  115. F. Højlund and H. H. Andersen, Qala’at al-Bahrain, vol. 1, The Northern City Wall and the Islamic Fortress (JASP 30/1, 1994);
  116. F. Højlund and H. H. Andersen, Qala’at al-Bahrain, vol. 2, The Central Monumental Buildings (JASP 30/2, 1997).
  117. J. Moon and R. G. Killick, “A Dilmun residence on Bahrain,” in Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Vorderasiens: Festschrift für Rainer Michael Boehmer, ed. U. Finkbeiner, R. Dittmann, and H. Hauptmann (Mainz, Germany: Von Zabern, 1995), 413–38;
  118. H. Crawford, R. Killick, and J. Moon, The Dilmun Temple at Saar (London: Kegan Paul International, 1997).
  119. R. Killick and J. Moon, eds., The Early Dilmun Settlement at Saar (Ludlow, UK: London-Bahrain Archaeological Expedition Saar Excavation Report 3, 2005).
  120. H. H. Andersen and F. Højlund, The Barbar Temples (JASP 48, 2004).
  121. Danish archaeologists have recently begun new excavations at the Barbar temple: see F. Højlund, P. Bangsgaard, J. Hansen, N. Haue, P. Kjærum, and D. D. Lund, “New Excavations at the Barbar Temple, Bahrain,” AAE 16 (2005): 105–28.
  122. J. Zarins, “Excavations at Dhahran South: The Tumulus Field (208–92); A preliminary Report,” Atlal 8 (1984): 25–54.
  123. The mining of “dead coral rock” is well-described in R. LeB. Bowen, “Marine industries of Eastern Arabia,” Geographical Review 41 (1951): 393–95. · DOI
  124. F. Højlund, Failaka/Dilmun, the Second Millennium Settlements, vol. 2, The Bronze Age Pottery (JASP 17/2, 1987).
  125. For a good overview of the later French excavations of Bronze Age remains on Failaka between 1983 and 1988, see Y. Calvet, “Agarum, une île de la civilisation de Dilmoun,” in G. Galliano, ed., L’île de Failaka, archéologie du Koweït (Lyon, France: Musée des Beaux Arts, 2005), 41–61.
  126. See P. Kjærum, Failaka/Dilmun, the Second Millennium Settlements, vol. 1, The Stamp and Cylinder Seals (JASP 17/1, 1983).
  127. H. Crawford, Early Dilmun Seals from Saar (Ludlow, UK: London-Bahrain Archaeological Expedition Saar Excavation Report 1, 2001).
  128. S. Cleuziou, “Oman Peninsula in the early 2nd millennium b.c.,” in South Asian Archaeology 1979, ed. H. Härtel (Berlin, Germany: Dietrich Reimer, 1981), 279–93.
  129. For a recent overview of the period with earlier bibliography see C. Velde, “Wadi Suq and Late Bronze Age in the Oman peninsula,” PFIC (2003), 101–14.
  130. For a good introduction see B. Vogt, “State, Problems and Perspectives of Second Millennium b.c. Funerary Studies in the Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah (UAE),” in Arabia and Its Neighbours: Essays on Prehistorical and Historical Developments: Essays Presented in Honour of Beatrice de Cardi, ed. C. Phillips, D. T. Potts, and S. Searight (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1998), 273–90.
  131. The literature on the metals industry of the period is large. See, for example, A. B. al-Shanfari and G. Weisgerber, “A Late Bronze Age Warrior Burial from Nizwa, Oman,” in Oman Studies: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Oman, ed. P. M. Costa, and M. Tosi (Rome: Serie Orientale Roma, 1989), 17–30;
  132. G. Weisgerber, “Archäologisches Fundgut des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr. in Oman — Möglichkeiten einer chronologischen Gliederung?,” in Golf-Archäologie, ed. K. Schippmann, A. Herling, and J. -F. Salles (Buch am Erlbach, Germany: Internationale Archäologie 6 (1991), 321–30;
  133. P. Magee, “The Chronology and Regional Context of Late Prehistoric Incised Arrowheads in Southeastern Arabia,” AAE 9 (1998): 112–17;
  134. D. T. Potts, “Some Issues in the Study of the Pre-Islamic Weaponry of Southeastern Arabia,” AAE 9 (1998): 182–208.
  135. M. Uerpmann, “Remarks on the Animal Economy of Tell Abraq (Emirates of Sharjah and Umm al-Qaywayn, UAE),” PSAS 31 (2001); 227–34.
  136. D. T. Potts, A Prehistoric Mound in the Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain: Excavations at Tell Abraq in 1989 (Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard, 1990);
  137. D. T. Potts, Further Excavations at Tell Abraq: The 1990 Season (Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard, 1991);
  138. D. T. Potts, Ancient Magan: The Secrets of Tell Abrag (London: Trident, 2000).
  139. P. Grave, D. T. Potts, N. Yassi, W. Reade, and G. Bailey, “Elemental Characterisation of Barbar Ceramics from Tell Abraq,” AAE 7 (1996): 177–87.
  140. D. T. Potts, “Post-Harappan Seals and Sealings from the Persian Gulf,” Man and Environment 30/2 (2005): 108–11.
  141. See, for example, M. Kervran, P. Mortensen, and F. Hiebert, “The Occupational Enigma of Bahrain between the 13th and the 8th Century b.c.,” Paléorient 13 (1987): 77–93. · DOI
  142. See generally J. A. Brinkman, Materials and Studies for Kassite History, vol. 1 (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1976).
  143. J. -J. Glassner, “Inscriptions cunéiformes de Failaka,” in Failaka fouilles francaises 1983, ed. J.-F. Salles (TMO 9, 1984), 31–50.
  144. B. André-Salvini and P. Lombard, “La découverte épigraphique de Qal’at al-Bahreïn: Un jalon pour la chronologie de la phase Dilmoun moyen dans le Golfe arabe,” PSAS 27 (1997): 165–70; J. Eidem, “Cuneiform Inscriptions,” in Qala’at al-Bahrain, vol. 2, 76–80.
  145. J. A. Brinkman, “A Kassite seal mentioning a Babylonian governor of Dilmun,” NABU (1993/4): 89–90 [= note 106].
  146. The seal is illustrated in J. Reade, “Commerce or Conquest: Variations in the Mesopotamia-Dilmun Relationship,” in Bahrain Through the Ages: The Archaeology, ed. H. A. Al Khalifa and M. Rice (London: Kegan Paul International, 1986), Fig. 137.
  147. A. Goetze, “The Texts Ni. 615 and Ni. 641 of the Istanbul Museum,” JCS 6 (1952): 142–45;
  148. P. B. Cornwall, “Two Letters from Dilmun,” JCS 6 (1952): 137–41.
  149. D. T. Potts, “Elamites and Kassites in the Persian Gulf,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 65 (2006): 111–19. · DOI
  150. For all of the texts see F. W. König, Die elamischen Königsinschriften (Graz: Archiv für Orientforschung, 1965), Beiheft 16;
  151. D. T. Potts, The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). · DOI
  152. So-called because this is the term given to this short dynasty in a Babylonian text known as Kinglist A. On the Second Dynasty of the Sealand. See J. A. Brinkman, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 B.C. (Rome: Analecta Orientalia 43, 1968): 149–57.
  153. F. Højlund, “Dilmun and the Sealand,” Northern Akkad Project Reports 2 (1989): 9–14.
  154. M. Kervran, P. Mortensen, and F. Hiebert, “The Occupational Enigma of Bahrain between the 13th and the 8th Century b.c.,” Paléorient 13 (1987): 77–93. · DOI
  155. P. Magee and R. Carter, “Agglomeration and Regionalism: Southeastern Arabia between 1400 and 1100 b.c.,” AAE 10 (1999): 161–79.
  156. Older literature generally refers to the appearance of qanat or falaj-type irrigation, but more recent studies suggest this is a misnomer. See R. Boucharlat, “Les galeries de captage dans la péninsule d’Oman au premier millénaire avant J.-C.: Questions sur leurs relations avec les galeries du plateau iranien,” in Irrigation et drainage dans l’Antiquité: Qanats et canalisations souterraines en Iran, en Égypte et en Grèce, Persika 2, ed. P. Briant (Paris: Thotm, 2001), 157–83;
  157. R. Boucharlat, “Iron Age Water-Draining Galleries and the Iranian ‘qanat’,” PFIC (2003), 162–72.
  158. The literature on the Iron Age of the Oman peninsula is now enormous. See, for example, P. Magee, “The Chronology of the Southeast Arabian Iron Age,” AAE 7 (1996): 240–52;
  159. P. Magee, “Settlement Patterns, Polities and Regional Complexity in the Southeast Arabian Iron Age,” Paléorient 24 (1999): 49–60; · DOI
  160. J. Córdoba, “Villages of Shepherds in the Iron Age: The Evidence of Al Madam (AM1 Thuqaibah Sharjah, UAE),” PFIC (2003), 174–80;
  161. and for older bibliography on many sites, M. Mouton and W. Y. al-Tikriti, eds., The Architectural Remains of the Iron Age Sites in the UAE and Oman (Lyon, France: Maison de l’Orient, 2001) (CD-ROM).
  162. A. Benoist, “An Iron Age II Snake Cult in the Oman Peninsula: Evidence from Bithnah (Emirate of Fujairah),” AAE 18 (2007): 34–54.
  163. All of the sources can be found in W. Heimpel, “Das untere Meer,” ZA 77 (1987): 22–91. · DOI
  164. R. Zadok, The Elamite onomasticon (Naples, Italy: Annali dell’Istituto Orientale di Napoli, Supplement 40, 1984), 13, 16.
  165. Much literature exists on this correspondence. See for example, H. H. Figulla, “Der Briefwechsel Bêl-ibni’s: Historische Urkunden aus der Zeit Asurbanipals,” Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatisch-Ägyptischen Gesellschaft 17, 1912): 1–104.
  166. See, for example, F. Malbran-Labat, “Nabû-bêl-šumâte, prince du Pays-de-la-Mer,” JA 163 (1975): 7–37.
  167. R. Campbell Thompson and M. E. L. Mallowan, “The British Museum excavations at Nineveh, 1931–32,” Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 20 (1933): 96.
  168. D. T. Potts, “The Location of Iz-ki-e,” Revue d’Assyriologie 79 (1985): 75–76;
  169. D. T. Potts, “From Qadê to Mazûn: Four Notes on Oman, c. 700 b.c. to 700 a.d.,” Journal of Oman Studies 8 (1985): 81–83.
  170. R. Boucharlat and P. Lombard, “Le bâtiment G de Rumeilah (Oasis d’Al Ain). Remarques sur les salles à poteaux de l’âge du Fer en péninsule d’Oman,” Iranica Antigua 36 (2001): 213–38; · DOI
  171. D. Stronach, “From Cyrus to Darius: Notes on art and architecture in early Achaemenid palaces,” in The Royal Palace Institution in the First Millennium B.C.: Regional Development and Cultural Interchange between East and West, ed. I. Nielsen (Athens, Greece: Monographs of the Danish Institute at Athens, vol. 4 (2001), 97.
  172. P. Magee, “Columned Halls, Power and Legitimisation in the Southeast Arabian Iron Age,” PFIC (2003), 182–91.
  173. A. J. Ferrara, “An Inscribed Stone Slab of Nebuchadrezzar,” JCS 27 (1975): 231–32.
  174. J.-J. Glassner, “Inscriptions cunéiformes de Failaka,” in Failaka fouilles franfaises 1983, ed. J.-F. Salles (TMO 9, 1984), 46.
  175. E. Ebeling, “Ekara,” Reallexikon der Assyriologie 2 (1938): 320.
  176. M. Sznycer, “Une inscription araméenne de Tell Khazneh,” in Failaka fouilles franfaises 1984–1985, ed. Y. Calvet and J.-F. Salles (TMO 12, 1986), 275.
  177. See, for example,. H. Schiwek, “Der Persische Golf als Schiffahrts — und Seehandelsroute in achämenidischer Zeit und in der Zeit Alexanders des Grossen,” Bonner Jahrbücher 162 (1962): 4–97;
  178. J.-F. Salles, “Les Achéménides dans le Golfe arabo-persique,” in Achaemenid History IV. Centre and Periphery, ed. H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg and A. Kuhrt (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1990), 111–30.
  179. At least since the late eighteenth century. See B. d’Anville, “Recherches géographiques sur le Golfe persique, et sur les bouches de l’Euphrate et du Tigre,” Mémoires de littérature, tirés des registres de l’Académie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 30 (1764): 161. Cf. W. Tomaschek, “Topographische Erläuterung der Küstenfahrt Nearchs vom Indus bis zum Euphrat,” in Sitzungsberichte der Kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in Wien, phil.-hist. Cl. 121 (1890), 64;
  180. P. Schwarz, Iran im Mittelalter nach den arabischen Geographen, vol. 1 (Leipzig, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1896), 66.
  181. R. Hallock, “The Elamite texts from Persepolis,” in Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses München, ed. H. Franke (Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1959), 177–79;
  182. D. Metzler, “Ptolemaios’ Geographie und die Topographie der Persepolis Fortification Tablets,” in XIX. Deutscher Orientalistentag, ed. W. Voigt (Wiesbaden, Germany: ZDMG Supplement 3/2, 1977), 1057–60.
  183. A. A. Sarfaraz, “Borazjan,” Iran 11 (1973): 188–89.
  184. J.-F. Salles, “Tell Khazneh: Les figurines en terre cuite,” in Failaka fouilles françaises 1984–1985, ed. Y. Calvet and J.-F. Salles (TMO 12, 1986), 143–200.
  185. P. Kjærum, “Stamp Seals and Seal Impressions,” in Qala’at al-Bahrain, vol. 2, The central monumental buildings, F. Højlund and H. H. Andersen (JASP 30/2, 1997), 163–64 and Fig. 734.
  186. Also D. T. Potts, “Differing modes of contact between India and the West: Some Achaemenid and Seleucid examples,” in Memory as History: The Legacy of Alexander in India, ed. H. P. Ray and D. T. Potts (New Delhi, India: Aryan Books, 2007), 122–30.
  187. D. T. Potts, “Revisiting the Snake Burials of the Late Dilmun Building Complex on Bahrain,” AAE 18 (2007): 55–74.
  188. D. T. Potts, “Some Issues in the Study of the Pre-Islamic Weaponry of Southeastern Arabia,” AAE 9 (1998): 194 and Fig. 10.
  189. R. T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets (Chicago: Oriental Institute Publications no. 92, 1969).
  190. A. Meineke, Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt, vol. 1 (Berlin: Reimer, 1849), 396.
  191. See in general P. Högemann, Alexander der Große und Arabien (Munich: Zetemata, 1985), 82.
  192. Tomaschek, “Topographische Erläuterung der Küstenfahrt Nearchs vom Indus bis zum Euphrat,” 1–88; A. Berthelot, “La côte méridionale de l’Iran d’après les géographes grecs,” in Mélanges offerts à M. Octave Navarre par ses élèves et ses amis (Toulouse, France: Edouard Privat, 1935), 11–24.
  193. See, for example, H. Bretzl, Botanische Untersuchungen des Alexanderzuges (Leipzig, Germany: Teubner, 1903).
  194. S. B. Miles, “Note on Pliny’s Geography of the East Coast of Arabia,” JRAS 10 (1878): 157–72. · DOI
  195. There is an enormous literature on this subject but all of the primary sources are conveniently catalogued with commentary by V. Tscherikower, Die hellenistischen Städtegründungen von Alexander dem Grossen bis auf die Römerzeit (Leipzig, Germany: Philologus Supplementband 19/1, 1927);
  196. G. M. Cohen, The Seleucid Colonies: Studies in Founding, Administration and Organization (Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1978).
  197. At least since W. W. Tarn, “Ptolemy II and Arabia,” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 15 (1929): 11. · DOI
  198. Again, a much discussed topic. On the city generally see G. Le Rider, “Un atelier monétaire dans la province de la mer Erythrée?,” Revue Numismatique 1965 (1965): 36–43.
  199. For example, J.-F. Salles, “The Arab-Persian Gulf under the Seleucids,” in Hellenism in the East, ed. A. Kuhrt and S. Sherwin-White (London: Duckworth, 1987), 103;
  200. J.-F. Salles, “Antique Maritime Channels from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean,” in From the Mediterranean to the China Sea: Miscellaneous Notes, ed. C. Guillot, D. Lombard and R. Ptak (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1998), 56.

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Authors
Potts, D. T.
Venue
The Persian Gulf in History
Publisher
Palgrave Macmillan US
Published
2009
Pages
27-56
DOI
10.1057/9780230618459_2
Cited by
40
References
0
Language
en
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)

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