The DOI matches its Crossref record; 53 of the 53 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 56 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies
Open accessAbstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a dramatic shortage in the medical supplies needed to treat the virus due to a massive surge in demand as the disease circled the globe during the first half of 2020. Prior to the crisis, there was an interdependence of trade and production for medical supplies, with advanced industrial countries like the United States and Germany specializing in the relatively high-tech medical devices sector, while low-cost production hubs such as China and Malaysia were leading producers of less technologically sophisticated personal protective equipment (PPE) products such as face masks, surgical gloves, and medical gowns. After the COVID-19 outbreak, global shortages of PPE products emerged as many affected countries imposed export controls and sought ways to boost domestic output. A case study of the face mask value chain in the United States shows misalignments between the priorities of U.S. federal government officials and the strategies of leading U.S. multinational producers of face masks, which resulted in exceptionally costly policy delays in terms of health outcomes. On balance, the U.S. shortage of N95 respirators during the COVID-19 pandemic is more a policy failure than a market failure. The global value chain framework highlights strategic options that could lead to more resilient supply chains and diversified sourcing patterns.
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In the paper
“Between 2008 and 2018, global trade in PPE and medical devices has more than doubled in value (Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“A case study of the face mask value chain in the United States shows misalignments between the priorities of U.S. federal government officials and the strategies of leading U.S. multinational producers of face masks, which resulted in exceptionally costly policy delays in terms of health outcomes.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Abstract
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In the paper
“The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a dramatic shortage in the medical supplies needed to treat the virus due to a massive surge in demand as the disease circled the globe during the first half of 2020.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Abstract
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In the paper
“China was the main producer of surgical masks at the start of the crisis, accounting for approximately one-half of world production (OECD, 2020a: 5–6).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Key Characteristics of the Face Mask GVC
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020a
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In the paper
“and the more serious and widespread problem of export controls emerged in the cascade of nearly 80 countries that introduced export prohibitions or temporary restrictions for COVID-19 products by the end of April, 2020 (WTO, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites WTO, 2020
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In the paper
“Among the many medical products that industry experts have identified as critical in the fight against COVID-19, the U.S. imported US$22 billion of these goods from the world in 2019, before the outbreak of COVID-19.8”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bown, 2020
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In the paper
“The main bottleneck in the face mask value chain in terms of inputs has been the non-woven fabric manufactured with polypropylene (OECD, 2020a: 4).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Key Characteristics of the Face Mask GVC
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020a
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On balance, the U.S. shortage of N95 respirators during the COVID-19 pandemic is more a policy failure than a market failure.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The Trump administration downplayed the outbreak's seriousness for two full months until social distancing began in mid-March 2020.
In the paper
“In large part, this is because supply chain dynamics vary considerably, not just by industry but also by the characteristics of specific products, the strategies of the companies that make them, and the distribution channels involved (Cattaneo, Gereffi, & Staritz, 2010; Staritz, Gereffi, & Cattaneo, 2011).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cattaneo, Gereffi, & Staritz, 2010; Staritz, Gereffi, & Cattaneo, 2011
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This plan allowed 3M to continue sending U.S.-produced N95 respirators to Canada and Latin America, where 3M is the primary source of supply.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 39
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After the COVID-19 outbreak, global shortages of PPE products emerged as many affected countries imposed export controls and sought ways to boost domestic output.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“By early May, 3M brought its U.S. production of N95 masks to 95 million units per month,14 and doubled its global output of respirators since January, 2020 to 1.1 billion per year (400 million in the U.S.).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Whooley, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newmarker, 2020
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In the paper
“However, depending on the product, the main foreign supplier for the American market is often not China. The European Union is the primary source of CT (computed tomography) systems, hand sanitizers, patient monitors, X-ray equipment, and breathing masks. Other leading exporters for specific products include: Mexico (medical protective clothing, catheters); Malaysia (sterile gloves); Singapore (”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bown, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although China increased its mask production tenfold in just 2 months (January–March, 2020), it was estimated that global demand for surgical masks might be ten times higher than world production capacity prior to the COVID-19 crisis (OECD, 2020a).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Key Characteristics of the Face Mask GVC
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“The U.S. imported about $5 billion (26%) of these products from China, which is the leading supplier of numerous items, including PPE, protective goggles, thermometers, and medical headwear.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bown, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Because China was the epicenter of the initial COVID-19 outbreak, however, its production was insufficient to meet its own demand related to the pandemic, and China imported a huge quantity of up to 2 billion masks during the crisis.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Key Characteristics of the Face Mask GVC
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“While exports of medical goods from the advanced industrial economies increased by 45% since 2008, the “non-traditional” exporters grew twice as fast (100%) (see Figures 2 and 3).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“According to disease modelers at Columbia University, if the U.S. had begun imposing social distancing measures just one week earlier than it did in mid-March, about 36,000 fewer people would have died in the coronavirus outbreak, and had stay-at-home measures been in place on March 1, 2020, 2 weeks earlier than most people started staying home, 83% of U.S. deaths could have been avoided (Glanz &”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > A Costly U.S. Syndrome: Policy Delays and Lack of Testing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Glanz & Robertson, 2020; Pei, Kandula, & Shaman, 2020
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hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results indicated that 290 million N95 masks would be required each month, whereas projected supply by the two leading U.S. producers of the masks, 3M and Honeywell, together with smaller suppliers like Moldex-Metrix and Prestige Ameritech, would generate only 80 million masks on a monthly basis, far below the target amount (see Figure 4).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > A Costly U.S. Syndrome: Policy Delays and Lack of Testing
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A look at the overall trade structure of COVID-19 products reveals that the top five global exporters, which together account for 50% of trade, are Germany (15%), the U.S. (11%), Switzerland (9%), China (8%), and Ireland (7%). The U.S. represents 18% of global imports for COVID-19 products, followed by Germany at just under 9% of the total.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“3M, the biggest American producer, more than quadrupled its U.S. output of N95 masks in the first half of 2020 to 95 million per month by May, and its global capacity was projected to double from 1.1 billion to 2 billion masks by the end of 2020.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Market Failure or Policy Failure?
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In the paper
“While the U.S. and Germany tended to specialize in the production of medical devices, China and Malaysia are the most specialized in PPE goods (OECD, 2020b).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Subsequently, a more elaborate fivefold governance typology was introduced that included hierarchies (vertically integrated firms whose affiliates are bound by equity ties) and competitive markets as endpoints, along with three types of recurrent production networks – captive, relational, and modular – with varied levels of explicit coordination between lead firms and their suppliers (Gereffi, Hum”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gereffi, Humphrey, & Sturgeon, 2005; Sturgeon, 2009
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In the paper
“a distinguishing feature of these studies is that they offer a network-centered perspective on the global economy that views different types of MNEs as “lead firms” that orchestrate complex, multi-tiered global supply chains.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gereffi & Kaplinsky, 2001; Gereffi, 2018, 2019
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The global value chain framework highlights strategic options that could lead to more resilient supply chains and diversified sourcing patterns.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Abstract
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In the paper
“Global industries have governance structures The strategies of GVC lead firms set the performance requirements (e.g., price, quality, standards, delivery schedule) for globally dispersed tiers of suppliers.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gereffi, 1994
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In the paper
“In effect, GVCs link the macro-level of international trade, investment, and finance with the meso-level of national and regional economies, and the micro-level of local suppliers, communities, and workers.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
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In the paper
“In addition, the policy drivers of supply chains are different in importing versus exporting economies, advanced industrial versus developing nations, and the home and host countries of the large multinational enterprises (MNEs) that typically lead and orchestrate global industries (Taglioni & Winkler, 2016; Stolzenburg, Taglioni, & Winkler, 2019; Horner & Alford, 2019).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Taglioni & Winkler, 2016; Stolzenburg, Taglioni, & Winkler, 2019; Horner & Alford, 2019
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In the paper
“A core insight of the early GVC literature was the contrast between “producer-driven” chains, whose lead firms were multinational manufacturers in relatively technology- and capital-intensive industries, such as automobiles, computers, and pharmaceuticals, and “buyer-driven” chains, whose lead firms were retailers (such as JC Penney, Walmart, and Carrefour), branded merchandisers (e.g., Nike, Adid”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gereffi, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“The driver was a large increase in demand, resulting from a rapidly aging population in both rich and middle-income countries, increased expenditure on healthcare in the developing world, and low tariffs that resulted in a plentiful supply of low-priced and high-quality goods.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In its 2019 Annual Report, 3M heralded its reduced inventory in order to more fully implement its “new global operating model” that expanded cash flow by 10% compared to the preceding year, increased operating margins by 22%, and reduced inventory levels by $370 million (3M, 2019: 2).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > JIT Business Model: Lower Inventories for All
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites 3M, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Typically, medical supplies are producer-driven value chains involved in business-to-business transactions between their lead firms or top suppliers and institutional clients, such as hospitals, healthcare distributors, and government agencies.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In early 2020, 3M scaled up N95 supply in its factories in South Dakota and Nebraska, as well as its respirator production site in China, to run all of its global respirator plants 24 hours per day, seven days per week, in anticipation of higher demand from the COVID-19 virus.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the following day, restrictions were imposed on some flights to the U.S. from China in an effort to quell the spread of the virus.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > A Costly U.S. Syndrome: Policy Delays and Lack of Testing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Frontline, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This shortfall of nearly three-quarters of the required total would have to come from the output of existing firms or new entrants into this sector, as well as imports that were exceptionally difficult to find because of export controls imposed by virtually all PPE-producing nations (WTO, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > A Costly U.S. Syndrome: Policy Delays and Lack of Testing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites WTO, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The geography of supply chains can vary over time This is based on multiple factors (e.g., country conditions, company strategies, technology shifts, or government policies), but regional and global sourcing patterns coexist and are often complimentary in many industries (Gereffi, 1999; Dicken, 2015; Whittaker, Sturgeon, Okita, & Zhu, 2020; Gereffi & Wu, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gereffi, 1999; Dicken, 2015; Whittaker, Sturgeon, Okita, & Zhu, 2020; Gereffi & Wu, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“President Trump’s first briefing on COVID-19 by Alex Azar, Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), occurred on January 18, several weeks after troubling initial signals about the pandemic emerged from China.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > A Costly U.S. Syndrome: Policy Delays and Lack of Testing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Frontline, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For this reason, it has been difficult to quickly increase the supply of face masks during the COVID-19 crisis or to find companies that can switch to this production process within a reasonable time and without substantial new investment.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Key Characteristics of the Face Mask GVC
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the medical devices segment, global trade is led by large vertically integrated MNEs headquartered in advanced industrial economies with worldwide production facilities. Although a number of major medical-device export industries are situated in relatively large, newly industrialized, global manufacturing hubs (such as Mexico, China, and the Republic of Korea), as well as smaller, more”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites OECD, 2020b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the less technologically sophisticated PPE segment of medical supplies, by contrast, there is more external contracting by third-party suppliers, even though regulatory oversight and certification are required for all factories that sell medical devices to major markets6 (Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020). Thus, there is more scope in PPE than medical devices for supplier-centered (rat”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Bamber, Fernandez-Stark, & Taglioni, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In general, booming international demand has driven the globalization of medical supplies and devices in recent decades.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > International Trade in Medical Supply GVCs, Pre-COVID-19
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Global supply chains have specialized divisions of labor Different locations make specific components and final products, which increases the efficiency of the chain. However, disruptions or substandard products at one location can jeopardize the entire chain if sourcing options are not diversified (Sturgeon, Van Biesebroeck, & Gereffi, 2008; Buckley & Strange, 2015; Sun & Grimes, 2018).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The Global Value Chain Framework
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sturgeon, Van Biesebroeck, & Gereffi, 2008; Buckley & Strange, 2015; Sun & Grimes, 2018
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The U.S. government asserted that, due to the coronavirus pandemic, 3M must give priority to the American market, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was authorized to obtain as many N95 masks as it needed from the company.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there are two other significant factors that slowed 3M’s ability to substantially increase its supply of N95 masks to the U.S. market: the JIT business model that prevails in the healthcare market and prioritizes lean production and low inventories across the supply chain; and industry demands for liability waivers in shifting from industrial to medical N95 masks to combat the COVID-19 pandemic.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > JIT Business Model: Lower Inventories for All
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Globalization in its expansionary phase in the latter decades of the twentieth century and first decade of the current century has run its course.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
““Black swan” events are increasingly likely, but their specific features remain unknown (Avishai, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Avishai, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Supply chains not only became more global in recent decades but they also became increasingly dependent on key exporting economies like China, along with the JIT business model that was optimized to maintain low costs and reduced inventories.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The result of these and other U.S. policy shortcomings in confronting the epochal challenge of the coronavirus pandemic is that the U.S. had a record number of new COVID-19 cases in a single day on July 10, 2020 with 68,241 diagnoses reported, a startling spike that more than tripled the total in mid-June (20,114 new cases on June 15) (New York Times, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Market Failure or Policy Failure?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites New York Times, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectn = 68,241- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“China in particular remains a critical strategic actor within the PPE supply chain, not merely as a source of relatively low-cost exports but even more importantly because China’s healthcare market is the second largest in the world, estimated at over $1 trillion in 2020 (Huang, 2019).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Huang, 2019
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The biggest U.S. suppliers, 3M and Honeywell, were each awarded contracts for over $170 million for protective gear, and other large orders went to untested third-party firms willing to enter the mask market at prices many times higher than the contracts for established producers.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Market Failure or Policy Failure?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Davis, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To further complicate its supply-side policy agenda, the Trump administration sought to nullify 3M’s export contracts with overseas customers in Canada and Latin America, raising deeper sovereignty concerns with U.S. trading partners.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Market Failure or Policy Failure?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, GVC studies highlight that regulations for the same products can vary in their stringency or levels of enforcement in large developing economies such as China, which could promote or hinder upgrading among GVC suppliers (Kaplinsky, Terheggen & Tijaja, 2010).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kaplinsky, Terheggen & Tijaja, 2010 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While significant forms of reglobalization are likely to be the most constructive and sustainable responses in the post-crisis era, de-globalization is not a viable long-term vision for the future.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The liability waiver was included in President Trump’s emergency legislation that opened the floodgates to the $2 trillion stimulus package that included funding to produce over 1 million N95 medical masks over the next 18 months (Whalen, Helderman & Hamburger, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Liability Concerns: A Hidden U.S. Driver for Delays in N95 Sourcing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Whalen, Helderman & Hamburger, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They did not appreciate the scale and the inevitability of the pandemic problem when the first U.S. cases were reported in January, 2020,16 and additional policy delays, related to lack of testing, bureaucratic in-fighting, and unwillingness to confront the health risks posed by the looming pandemic, wasted valuable time.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Market Failure or Policy Failure?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, regulatory policies are crucial for all healthcare supply chains, both in the home market (such as the legal liability concern over N95 masks) and also in the transparency of international supply chains, where informal subcontracting has often compromised quality and lowered confidence in these arrangements.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus, the conversion from industrial use to medical masks is not straightforward, as some retooling is required because medical masks contain an extra material that makes them splash-proof, raising long-standing industry concerns about liability lawsuits (Whalen, Helderman & Hamburger, 2020).”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Liability Concerns: A Hidden U.S. Driver for Delays in N95 Sourcing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Whalen, Helderman & Hamburger, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, COVID-19 has revealed a great deal about the inadequacy of current policies and global supply chains to respond to the public health and economic crises unleashed by the pandemic.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because industrial and medical N95 masks are made according to different specifications, they vary in design and fit, and they are subject to different regulations.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Liability Concerns: A Hidden U.S. Driver for Delays in N95 Sourcing
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Whalen, Helderman & Hamburger, 2020
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While lower inventories may be viewed as an efficient business practice when orders are steady, they make supply chains fragile and brittle in times of crisis.”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > Post-covid-19 Scenarios
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Globalization's growth in recent decades led firms to adopt lean production and just-in-time supply chains that cut inventories to reduce operating costs and tied-up cash.
The paper relies on this without support.
The Trump administration downplayed the outbreak's seriousness for two full months until social distancing began in mid-March 2020.
“Although the first reported U.S. case of the new coronavirus was detected in mid-January, 2020, the Trump administration minimized the seriousness of the outbreak for a full 2 months until social distancing began to be introduced in mid-March.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No single country can efficiently produce all goods needed to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.
“Obviously, no single country can be expected to efficiently produce all of the goods needed to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Globalization's growth in recent decades led firms to adopt lean production and just-in-time supply chains that cut inventories to reduce operating costs and tied-up cash.
“The steady expansion of globalization in recent decades has encouraged the adoption of lean production and JIT supply chains that encourage manufacturers to reduce inventories as much as possible in order to lower operating costs and the amount of cash tied up in inventory.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
“By early May, 3M brought its U.S. production of N95 masks to 95 million units per month,14”
§ What does the COVID-19 pandemic teach us about global value chains? The case of medical supplies > The U.S. Quest for Face Masks During the COVID-19 Crisis: Demand Spikes, Supply Shortages, and Policy Confusion > Pressures on 3M to Ramp Up U.S. Production and Imports of N95 Respirators
“doubled its global output of respirators since January, 2020 to 1.1 billion per year (400 million in the U.S.).”
Citations
Cites
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Value chains, networks and clusters: reframing the global automotive industry
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Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Hufford, A. 2020. 3M CEO on N95 masks: ‘Demand exceeds our production capacity’. Wall Street Journal, April 2.
- UNCTAD. 2017. World investment report, 2017 – investment and the digital economy. Geneva: UNCTAD.
Cited by
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CoVid19, a Threat or a Blessing to Globalization?
Moise, D., Negescu, M. D. O., Diaconu, A., & Diaconu, S. (2021) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/20219201033 · Cited by 1
Kamperos, I. D. G., Giannakopoulos, N. T., Σακάς, Δ. Π., & Glaveli, Ν. (2026) · Journal of risk and financial management · doi:10.3390/jrfm19050310 · Cited by 2
McCue, C. P., Boykin, E. A., & Prier, E. (2021) · European Journal of Public Procurement Markets · doi:10.54611/zxya4384 · Cited by 1
Wu, S., & Yan, Z. J. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-026-10138-5 · Cited by 1
What is the magnitude of risk exposure in China’s bioeconomic supply chains?
Cheng, H., Cai, H., & Wang, X. (2025) · Food Policy · doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.102900
Evolutionary Paths of Global Value Chains (GVCs) for SMEs: A Conceptual Framework
Kabbara, D., Veglio, V., Magnani, G., & Zucchella, A. (2026) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1745-88622026000020a011
Measuring the industry relocation at the macro-level
Gao, X., Hewings, G. J. D., & Yang, C. (2025) · Economic Systems Research · doi:10.1080/09535314.2025.2492700
Woo, J., KIM, J. S., & Kang, J. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7153813
Sustainability and Pandemic (COVID-19)
Singh, P., Singh, S., & Yadav, S. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-3720-3.ch009
Upgrading the Global Value Chains After COVID-19
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gereffi, G.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gereffi, Gary
- ORCID
- Gereffi, Gary
- Venue
- Journal of International Business Policy
- Published
- 2020-07-15
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 287-301
- ISSN
- 2522-0691 (ISSN-L)
- 2522-0705
- PMC
- PMC7360894
- OpenAlex
- W3041042264
- Semantic Scholar
- 8747cef8f3da262a3997ad911d520c4bd8869233
- Cited by
- 691
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 103 · 2024: 93 · 2023: 118 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 121 · 2020: 28
- FWCI
- 347.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of International Business Policy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › COVID-19, Geopolitics, Technology, Migration
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Supply Chain Resilience and Risk Management
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Global trade, sustainability, and social impact
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, global value chains, medical supplies, personal protective equipment, face masks, N95 respirators, supply chain shortages, export controls, medical device manufacturing, supply chain resilience
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