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The Nonmedical Use of Ketamlne, Part Two: A Review of Problent Use and Dependence
Abstract
This is the second part of a review of the nonmedical use of ketamine. Part one discussed the history of ketamine, the sought-after effects for which it is taken in a nonmedical context, how these are produced, common adverse effects, the ketamine schizophrenia model and the neurotoxicity issue. Part two reviews what is currently known about problem use of ketamine, ketamine dependence, treatment options and harm minimization issues. Some ketamine users become dependent on the drug in a manner resembling cocaine dependence, with craving and a high tolerance but no evidence of a physiological withdrawal syndrome. The likely mechanisms of this dependence are discussed in terms of what is known about the neurochemistry of ketamine, its psychological effects, and published case histories in both the formal and informal literature. The conclusions are that ketamine dependence is linked with effects that this complex drug has in common with not only cocaine and amphetamine but also with opiates, alcohol and cannabis, as well as the psychological attractions of its distinctive psychedelic properties.
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“Episodes of long duration of withdrawal symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, mania, tinnitus, nausea, unexplained fear, and dizziness) were described after SNRIs discontinuation, suggesting the occurrence of persistent post-withdrawal disorders [120-123].”
From Acute and Persistent Withdrawal Syndromes Following Discontinuation of Psychotropic Medications (2020) · cites this paper as [122]
In the citing paper
“To be noted that 3 out of the 4 studies reporting SNRI persistent post-withdrawal disorders were on venlafaxine [120-122] and 1 was on duloxetine [123].”
From Acute and Persistent Withdrawal Syndromes Following Discontinuation of Psychotropic Medications (2020) · cites this paper as [122]
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Ketamine and Ketamine Metabolite Pharmacology: Insights into Therapeutic Mechanisms
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Metadata
- Authors
- Jansen, K. L. R., & Darracot-Cankovic, R.
- Affiliations
- St Thomas' Hospital (GB)
- Venue
- Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 151-158
- ISSN
- 0279-1072 (ISSN-L)
- 2159-9777
- OpenAlex
- W2148291000
- Cited by
- 137
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 1.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Psychoactive Drugs (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Toxicology › Forensic Toxicology and Drug Analysis
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Keywords
- ketamine, ketamine dependence, problematic substance use, craving, tolerance (pharmacology and immunology), withdrawal, harm reduction, psychedelic effects
- MeSH terms
- Anesthetics, Dissociative, Animals, Drug Tolerance, Humans, Ketamine, Behavior, Addictive, Substance-Related Disorders
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