Multivariate base rates for the assessment of executive functioning among children and adolescents
Abstract
This study provides observed base rates of low executive functioning test scores among healthy children and adolescents, stratifies those base rates by narrow intellectual functioning and age groupings, and provides normative classification ranges to aid the interpretation of performances on the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) in clinical practice and research. Participants included 875 children and adolescents between 8 and 19 years old from the D-KEFS normative sample (48% male; 52% female). Among these participants, 838 had complete data and were included in the current study. The racial/ethnic composition of the sample was: White (73.7%), African American (12.4%), Hispanic (11.1%), and other racial/ethnic backgrounds (2.7%). The Overall Test Battery Mean (OTBM) and the prevalence of low scores at various clinical cut-offs were calculated for the 13 primary scores from the D-KEFS Trail Making Test, Verbal Fluency Test, and Color-Word Interference Test. The OTBM and base rates were also calculated separately for those scores reflecting executive functioning (n = 7) and processing speed (n = 6). Healthy children and adolescents commonly obtained low scores on the D-KEFS tests considered here. Younger age, lower estimated full-scale intelligence quotient, and more test scores interpreted were associated with a greater frequency of low scores. Clinicians and researchers are encouraged to consider these multivariate base rates when assessing and attempting to id…
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When administered a cognitive test battery, children and adolescents in the general population frequently obtain one or more low scores.
“When administered a cognitive test battery, children and adolescents in the general population frequently obtain one or more low scores (Brooks and Iverson, 2010, 2012; Brooks et al., 2013a; Cook et al., 2019).”
From Cognitive weaknesses or impairments on the NIH toolbox cognition battery in children and adolescents: base rates in a normative sample and proposed methods for classification (2025) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2019
Numerous prior studies have found that intellectual ability is associated with the likelihood of obtaining low scores across pediatric test batteries.
“Numerous prior studies have found that intellectual ability is associated with the likelihood of obtaining low scores across pediatric test batteries (Brooks, 2010, 2011; Brooks et al., 2009; Cook et al., 2019).”
From Cognitive weaknesses or impairments on the NIH toolbox cognition battery in children and adolescents: base rates in a normative sample and proposed methods for classification (2025) · cites this paper as Cook et al., 2019
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References 39 · Cited by 18
- Authors
- Cook, N. E., Karr, J. E., Brooks, B. L., Garcia-Barrera, M. A., Holdnack, J. A., & Iverson, G. L.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Victoria (CA)
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Research and Statistics Consultant, Bear, DE, USA
- Corresponding author
- Iverson, Grant L.
- Venue
- Child Neuropsychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-12-11
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 836-858
- ISSN
- 0929-7049 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-4136
- OpenAlex
- W2904229800
- Cited by
- 18
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 4.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Child Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- executive function, base rates, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System, reference values, children and adolescents, processing speed, Trail Making Test, verbal fluency test, Color-Word Interference Test, intelligence quotient, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Multivariate Analysis, Young Adult, Executive Function
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