The DOI matches its Crossref record; 35 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 24 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
The effect of military (un)professionalism on civil-military relations and security in Nigeria
Open accessAbstract
The focus of this study is on the effect of military (un)professionalism on civil-military relations and citizens’ security in Nigeria. To sketch the context, the article provides a brief background on the nature of armed conflict, which necessitated the deployment of the military in internal operations. Following this is a brief description of the extent and nature of military abuse, which strains civil-military relations. Using the principles of what constitutes military professionalism, the study shows that the conduct of the Nigerian military, together with the lack of civil control undermines internal security operations and has eroded trust in the armed forces. The influence on civil-military relations is analysed, with reference to a qualitative study conducted among civilians affected by military abuse in Plateau State. The findings show that the unprofessionalism of the Nigerian military undermines military effectiveness, civil-military relations, and exacerbates the insecurity of citizens.
Overview
Integrity signals
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
26 Own interpretation · 21 Own result · 12 Sources not found · 5 No full text of the sources · 5 Not checked yet · 2 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition to abuse at military checkpoints, participants noted that whenever there are curfews and soldiers patrol their streets, there is a spike in corporal punishments.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional training and conduct
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, soldiers frequently inform civilians at checkpoints that they are not going to sacrifice themselves for 'bloody civilians.'”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional social ethic and external affective neutrality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This has led to calls to either withdraw, redesign, or reconfigure the forces.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on the findings, there is a clear lack of conflict resolution skills, resulting in them resorting to violence as the default in dealing with any misdemeanour.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional training and conduct
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, it is common for active-duty personnel to drink alcohol and abuse substances such as Indian hemp, marijuana, and drugs during working hours.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants told of how soldiers who abuse substances mostly befriend youths who deal in drugs to ensure that they have regular supply.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but on the other, citizens feel that the military is not suited to these roles given their training, education, and preparation for these roles, as well as the overall 'unprofessional' conduct of soldiers.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most typical tactics is to delay passenger vehicles from continuing their journey unless they pay a bribe.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional social ethic and external affective neutrality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In Plateau State, for example, civilians accuse the military of collaborating with, and aiding some armed groups that threaten their security based on identity politics.57”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Corporateness and professionalism
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [57] Ricks, Thomas. ‘The Widening Gap Between Military and Society’. The Atlantic Monthly, 1997, 66–78.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
- Not matched
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response, civilians have sought to establish their own 'private' security by joining or supporting 'vigilante groups' to protect themselves from both the military, and other armed groups.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
- Probably not a substantial claim. 3
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While civilians know that extortion is wrong and illegal, this has become the norm and regarded as a 'mutual benefit' to pay a bribe in return for not being checked or delayed.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional social ethic and external affective neutrality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In all the localities, participants acknowledged or agreed that soldiers are complicit in some of the attacks, either as collaborators, or through the general dereliction of duty.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Corporateness and professionalism
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants in this study reported numerous incidences involving soldiers in uniform using and dealing in drugs and acting in an undisciplined manner.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These armed 'vigilante' groups are mostly clandestine, controlled by community leaders and comprised of community members who serve as foot soldiers.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some soldiers do not share the same commitment to the goals of the mission, especially where rifts exist within the military, and between the military and citizens.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional social ethic and external affective neutrality
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given this, Christians, strongly believe the military is biased and complicit when it comes to protecting them and their communities.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Corporateness and professionalism
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is worsened by the fact that they also feel unprotected by the military.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings of this study shows that the military violates all these principles of professionalism, as demonstrated in the voices of ordinary citizens.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > The Nigerian Military and (un)professionalism
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, as reflected in this study, soldiers typically lack the necessary conflict resolution skills and appear unable to maintain the right balance between the values of the military (rapid use of force and violence, discipline, timeliness, obedience) and the values of society (comfort, dialogue and compromise, permissiveness).”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional training and conduct
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The findings show that the unprofessionalism of the Nigerian military undermines military effectiveness, civil-military relations, and exacerbates the insecurity of citizens.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Abstract
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and accounts of civilians in Plateau State are representative of the Nigerian military's conduct and civil-military relations across Nigeria.
- Rests on an assumption: The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More so, soldiers working under the influence of substances are prone to make poor security judgments and decisions, which undermines effectiveness and performance.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, our position is that the lack of professionalism has a profound effect on both civil-military relations and the security of citizens.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consequently, soldiers come to act with impunity, while citizens suffer the consequence without judicial recompense.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Undermining civil control, is the fact the military has too much 'autonomy', with the officer corps exerting an undue influence over political decision making. 63”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [63] Vanguard News Nigeria. ‘Herdsmen Kill 2 Soldiers in Plateau, Injure One’. Vanguard News Nigeria, 2020. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/02/herdsmen-kill-2-soldiers-in-plateau-injure-one/.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The violation of the human rights of citizens is largely due to the unprofessional conduct of personnel, as well as the lack of civil oversight to hold the military accountable.19”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Evidence of military abuse and human rights violations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both the inability of the public to hold the military accountable, coupled with the lack of internal cohesion has affected the conduct of military operations.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The Nigerian military lacks internal cohesion.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Under these conditions, civil control of the military is weak, allowing predatory and extra-legal actions by the military to go unchecked and unchallenged by authorities.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Autonomy and civil control and oversight
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As indicated, the Nigerian military has considerable autonomy, which means that they often act beyond their mandate.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Autonomy and civil control and oversight
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This worsens the already fragile security situation in the State as the activities of these groups are not subject to state control.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Corporateness and professionalism
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and accounts of civilians in Plateau State are representative of the Nigerian military's conduct and civil-military relations across Nigeria.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, atrocities such as the Shi'ites massacre, the Odi and the Zaki Biam massacres, and failure to address this means that military leadership condones human rights abuses.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A further strain on civil-military relations is the lack of civil control and civilian oversight, which means that the military is not held accountable for their atrocities.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Soldiers under the influence of alcohol or drugs often act in an ill-disciplined manner as this alters their sense of reasoning, emotions, and empathy, thereby making them less vigilant, but also more aggressive in terms of their behaviour.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lack of professionalism across the various domains not only impedes military effectiveness and mission success, but it undermines citizens' trust in the military, and by extension, their willingness to cooperate with the military in current and future engagements.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“What we see is that erring soldiers are rarely prosecuted or held accountable for their actions and where they are, the reports are not made public.59”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Internal controls and enforcement of internal affective neutrality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [59] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Consequently, the military acts as a law unto their themselves, giving rise to a sub-culture similar to that of a 'state-within-the-state.' 53”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Autonomy and civil control and oversight
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [53] Para-Mallam Oluwafunmilayo Josephine, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“One explanation for this failure is because the military holds significant political power, with many former members serving in government.55”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Autonomy and civil control and oversight
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55] Perlmutter Amos, 1980
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There is close allegiance between military and political leaders, which undermines civil control of the military.56”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Autonomy and civil control and oversight
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [56] Peterside Z. B., 2014, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where military personnel aid or collaborate with certain groups, it not only creates tension between civilians and soldiers, but fuels insecurity.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Corporateness and professionalism
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The dereliction of duty points to the lack of professional social ethic and external affective neutrality, which undermines the oath of a professional soldier to serve and defend the state and citizens, even if it means paying the ultimate sacrifice with their life.61”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional social ethic and external affective neutrality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [61] source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Where vigilante groups are armed with weapons such as machetes, daggers, and guns, this results not only in the proliferation of small arms and light weapons but has exacerbated the security situation in Plateau State.67”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [67]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Besides deficits in training and equipment, the conventional army mindset, focused on an external enemy has not equipped them for internal domestic deployments, which often leads them to respond to situations using excessive force.47”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional training and conduct
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [47] Ojo Emmanuel O., 2014, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What one therefore sees is that the training, education, and development of soldiers are unbefitting the roles that they are performing, which strains civil-military relations in Nigeria.”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > Professional training and conduct
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The experiences and accounts of civilians in Plateau State are representative of the Nigerian military's conduct and civil-military relations across Nigeria.
In the paper
“This has strained civil-military relations to the point where citizens no longer trust the military as a provider of security, with some referring to the military as 'monsters' and others, taking up arms against the military.71”
§ THE EFFECT OF MILITARY (UN)PROFESSIONALISM ON CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND SECURITY IN NIGERIA > DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [71]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigeria Police Force is overwhelmed by the magnitude of violence and threats, necessitating military deployment in internal security operations.
“Although law enforcement and internal security management is the responsibility of the Nigeria Police Force, it is overwhelmed by the magnitude of the violence and threats posed by”
The paper relies on this without support.
The experiences and accounts of civilians in Plateau State are representative of the Nigerian military's conduct and civil-military relations across Nigeria.
“The influence on civil-military relations is analysed, with reference to a qualitative study conducted among civilians affected by military abuse in Plateau State.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The participants' accounts of military abuse are truthful and accurate.
“One-on-one qualitative interviews were held with participants on their experiences, attitudes, and perception of the military's conduct in internal security operations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigerian state has no choice but to use the military given the internal threats it faces.
“On the one hand, the Nigerian state has no choice but to use the military given the internal threats it faces”
The paper relies on this without support.
The integration of joint task forces has not been associated with retraining or any form of re-socialisation.
“However, this integration has not been associated with retraining, or any form of re-socialisation”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigerian military has a heightened sense of corporateness, meaning it closes rank when faced with public scrutiny.
“Facilitating this is the heightened sense of corporateness of the Nigerian Military, which has meant that the military closes rank when faced with public scrutiny.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigerian military lacks internal cohesion.
“coupled with the lack of internal cohesion”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigerian military lacks internal affective controls to enforce loyalty, duty, obedience, and discipline.
“The lack of both internal affective controls, to enforce loyalty, duty, obedience, and discipline”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Nigerian military lacks external affective neutrality to ensure that it acts impartially, without prejudice and in the interests of the broader population.
“as well as the lack of external affective neutrality to ensure that the military acts impartially, without prejudice and in the interests of the broader population”
The paper relies on this without support.
Community vigilante groups have the potential to metamorphose into economic militias.
“More so, they have the potential to metamorphose into economic militias”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Cited works that were retracted
Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“10.1080/14702436.2013.845382”
Cited work 10.1080/14702436.2013.845382 · retracted 2016-04-19 · notice 10.1080/14702436.2016.1165967 · this paper published 2022-01-24
Citations
Cites
1 retracted
RETRACTED ARTICLE: Domestic Terrorism in Nigeria: The Grown ‘Monster’ Within!
Bamidele, O. (2013) · Defence Studies · doi:10.1080/14702436.2013.845382 · Cited by 2
RetractedMediterranean journal of social sciences
(2020) · Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.5901/mjss · Cited by 3,225
The Soldier and the State. The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations.
Martineau, D. L., & Huntington, S. P. (1957) · Military Affairs · doi:10.2307/1984529 · Cited by 1,224
Feaver, P. D. (2003) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674036772 · Cited by 378
The Essence of Military Group Cohesion
Siebold, G. L. (2007) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x06294173 · Cited by 309
The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait.
(1960) · doi:10.2307/2089990 · Cited by 157
Service Life and Beyond – Institution or Culture?
Bergman, B. P., Burdett, H. J., & Greenberg, N. (2014) · The RUSI Journal · doi:10.1080/03071847.2014.969946 · Cited by 110
The Evolution of the Measurement of Cohesion
Siebold, G. L. (1999) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327876mp1101_2 · Cited by 98
The Internal—External Security Nexus: Notes on an Emerging Research Agenda
Eriksson, J., & Rhinard, M. (2009) · Cooperation and Conflict · doi:10.1177/0010836709106215 · Cited by 65
Advancing Military Professionalism in Africa
Ouedraogo, E. (2014) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · doi:10.21236/ada609337 · Cited by 52
Research works printed but not linked: 17
- Agbese Pita Ogaba., 1991, Security Dialogue, 22, 315
- Alaga Ecoma, 2013, Military Engagement: Influencing Armed Forces Worldwide to Accept Democratic Transitions, 215
- Alli Chris M., 2001, The Federal Republic of Nigeria Army: The Siege of a Nation
- Best Shedrack Gaya, 2011, Conflict and Its Aftermath in Jos and Kano, Nigeria: What Is the Role of Religion?
- Dandeker Christopher, 1999, Facing Uncertainty: Flexible Forces for the Twenty-First Century, Ergomas Report
- Effiong Edem., 2001, Hope Betrayed? A Report on Impunity and State-Sponsored Violence in Nigeria, 69
- Federal Government of Nigeria. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Pub. L. No. CAP. C23 L.F.N. 2004, 1 (1999).
- Gulleng Daskyes Yohanna, 2018, Policing Reform in Africa: Moving Towards A Rights-Based Approach in A Climate of Terrorism, Insurgency and Serious Violent Crime, 221
- Idris Muhammad Inuwa., 2019, Professional Military Education: A Cross-Cultural Survey, 13, 35
- International Crisis Group, 2012, Curbing Violence in Nigeria (1): The Jos Crisis
- Joshua Segun, 2020, Armed Forces & Society, 1
- Käihkö Ilmari., 2018, Armed Forces & Society, 47, 177
- Nordlinger Eric A., 1977, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments
- Nwachukwu Ijeoma, 2001, Hope Betrayed? A Report on Impunity and State-Sponsored Violence in Nigeria, 129
- Ogah P., 2011, Law and Security in Nigeria, 70
- Ojo Emmanuel O., 2014, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, 15, 9
- Para-Mallam Oluwafunmilayo Josephine, 2013, A Critical Investigation into the Role of Security Sector Agencies in the Jos Conflict: Issues and Strategies for Institutional/Security Sector Reform
Cited by
Sorted by citations
(2024) · doi:10.1186/s12982-024-00258-y · Cited by 3
“These terrorists attack road users at transit points and commit crimes like cattle rustling, sporadic shooting, rape, mass kidnapping, arson, pillaging, and impose illicit levies on farmers in poorly governed communities [28, 29].”
Democratic Civilian Control in Limited-Access Orders: Rethinking Civil–Military Relations in Nigeria
Alli, F. (2026) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x251410089 · Cited by 2
Reimagining Civil-Military Relations from a Quadrumvirate Interaction Perspective
Musa, S. Y. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-55881-8_8 · Cited by 2
Self-citationNegotiating Peace or Peace on Trial: Armed Banditry and the Cacophony of Blanket Amnesty
Adenuga, G. A., & Olatunji, A. O. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-45445-5_12 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Musa, S. Y., & Heinecken, L.
- Affiliations
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Musa, Sallek Yaks
- Venue
- African Security Review
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2022-01-24
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 157-173
- ISSN
- 1024-6029 (ISSN-L)
- 2154-0128
- OpenAlex
- W4207001757
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4
- FWCI
- 5.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- African Security Review (publishedVersion)
- NECTAR - Northampton Electronic Collection of Thesis and Research (University of Northampton) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Stellenbosch University
- Social Science Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Military and Defense Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Peacebuilding and International Security
- Keywords
- military professionalism, civil-military relations, military abuses, civilian control of the military, citizen security, armed conflict, Nigerian military, Plateau State
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: The effect of military (un)professionalism on civil-military relations and security in Nigeria. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1080/10246029.2021.2014917
- The paper
- Musa, S. Y., & Heinecken, L. (2022). The effect of military (un)professionalism on civil-military relations and security in Nigeria. African Security Review. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2021.2014917
