Delivery of encapsulated bioactive compounds within food matrices to the digestive tract: recent trends and future perspectives

“The rate of digestion of the bolus is determined by the time required for the gastric secretions to reach the walls of the surrounding matrix and free the bio-active compound from the matrix (Figure 2) (Bornhorst and Singh 2014; Guo et al. 2020; Lentle and Janssen 2011).”

“Unlike solid foods, liquid foods do not undergo a large amount of chewing and mastication and have comparatively very short residence times in the oral cavity (Minekus et al. 2014).”

“Thus, an understanding of the structural properties of food materials is important for proper control of food processing operations as well as for improvement in the quality of the final product (Karim et al. 2018; Lamothe et al. 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007).”

“Starch is composed of two types of molecule: linear glucose polymer (amylose) and branched polymer (amylopectin) (Singh, Dartois, and Kaur 2010; Wang and Copeland 2013).”

“…have been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al.…”

“Additionally, factors such as age, gender, ethnic groups, and oral health may vary the process of chewing (Chen 2009).”

“The process of the disintegration and consequent absorption of nutrients in the human gut is directly affected by the microstructural arrangement of the food (Aguilera 2019; Kong and Singh 2008; Rein et al. 2013).”

“Bioactive compounds are classified into two major classes based on different chemical structures, i.e., water-soluble compounds (hydrophilic) and lipid-soluble compounds (Lipophilic) (Carbonell-Capella et al. 2014; Galanakis 2017).”

“Starch is composed of two types of molecule: linear glucose polymer (amylose) and branched polymer (amylopectin) (Singh, Dartois, and Kaur 2010; Wang and Copeland 2013).”

“The process of the disintegration and consequent absorption of nutrients in the human gut is directly affected by the microstructural arrangement of the food (Aguilera 2019; Kong and Singh 2008; Rein et al. 2013).”

“Since ancient times, dairy products have been the primary source of nutrients such as protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals, making them the most popular and highly consumed products worldwide (Eržen, Kač, and Pravst 2014; Pereira 2014; Scholz-Ahrens, Ahrens, and Barth 2020).”

“In general, these compounds are produced as secondary metabolites in small quantities and can modulate metabolic processes (Graebin et al. 2019; Khaw et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2016).”

“The complexity of self-assembled structures in animal-or plant-based foods and structures generated in processed foods revolves around their structural orientation and their chemical composition (Aguilera 2005; Capuano et al. 2018; Flores and Kong 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007; Ubbink 2012).”

“…food ingredients from degradation under high temperature processing compared with lipid and protein food matrices, which undergo degradation (Fathi, Martín, and McClements 2014; Zhu 2017); however, the direct addition of bioactive compounds to cooked foods is still not possible, because of…”

“The concept of isolating bioactive compounds from natural sources to enrich other commonly consumed foods enables achieving higher loading per serve and possibly increase the uptake (Moreno and Ilic 2018; Shahidi 2009).”

“The process of the disintegration and consequent absorption of nutrients in the human gut is directly affected by the microstructural arrangement of the food (Aguilera 2019; Kong and Singh 2008; Rein et al. 2013).”

“As liquid foods generally lack structures that need to be broken down, they empty from the stomach rapidly without a lag phase, thus resulting in a minimum matrix effect (Siegel et al. 1988; Ye 2021).”

“…been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al. 2020).”

“Scientific understanding of the potential benefits of the bioactive food components has stimulated consumers choice toward natural products with additional health-promoting effect (Betoret et al. 2011; Mollet and Rowland 2002).”

“Different ratios of these two molecules and their orientation within the granules provide starch with considerable variability in functional properties, such as water absorption, swelling, pasting, gelation behavior, and vulnerability to enzymatic degradation (Singh, Kaur, and Singh 2013; Zhu 2017).”

“Following gastric digestion of the food, its digestion is continued in the small intestine, where the macromolecules are predominantly broken down and water and nutrients are absorbed (Campbell, Berry, and Liang 2019; Li et al. 2020).”

“Additionally, encapsulation systems can be designed to control the targeted delivery of bioactive compounds in the gastrointestinal environment, thus enhancing their bioaccessibility and bioavailability (Donhowe et al. 2014; Jiang, Liao, and Charcosset 2020; Sabet et al. 2021).”

“…been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al. 2020).”

“The rate of digestion of the bolus is determined by the time required for the gastric secretions to reach the walls of the surrounding matrix and free the bio-active compound from the matrix (Figure 2) (Bornhorst and Singh 2014; Guo et al. 2020; Lentle and Janssen 2011).”

“The alterations in liquid foods are mostly brought about by interactions between the constituent parts of the food and bodily fluids, or between the constituent parts when they are in a gastrointestinal environment (McClements et al. 2008; Singh and Acevedo-Fani 2022).”

“…dissipative organization is often categorized as soft matter, as its functionality is driven mainly by its internal (i.e., physico-chemical and biochemical reactions) and external (i.e., enzymes, pH, thermal fluctuations, and microorganisms) perturbations (Aguilera 2019; Alongi and Anese 2021).”

“Scientific understanding of the potential benefits of the bioactive food components has stimulated consumers choice toward natural products with additional health-promoting effect (Betoret et al. 2011; Mollet and Rowland 2002).”

“…to protect bioactive substances within the food products from the peripheral environments, regulate their release in a particular environment, and improve consumer compliance and convenience (Nedovic et al. 2011; Qazi et al. 2015; Rezvankhah, Emam-Djomeh, and Askari 2020; Rodríguez et al. 2016).”

“…systems is associated with a specific formulation that involves combining the appropriate ratios of carrier materials, functional substances, and one or more biopolymeric emulsifier layers with the right hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (Bao et al. 2019; McClements 2018; Qazi et al. 2015; Zhu 2017).”

“Green tea catechins and epigallocatechin gallate that were encapsulated in soy lecithin-based liposomes were added to low-fat hard cheese (Rashidinejad et al. 2014).”

“Additionally, in a complex food, the way in which proteins and lipids interact with starch throughout the processing and digestion of meals might alter the quantities of glucose and active ingredients that are released (Lu et al. 2019; Singh, Dartois, and Kaur 2010).”

“Similarly, Joung et al. (2016) assessed the radical scavenging activity of a curcumin nanoemulsion in a low-fat milk.”

“…1981; Ye et al. 2019) and a dynamic in vitro human gastric simulator (HGS) have shown that the stomach juice and the mechanical grinding can cause liquids such as milk to coag-ulate, which prolongs their digestion rate and their duration within the stomach (Mulet-Cabero et al. 2019; Ye 2021).”

“Additionally, in vivo studies (Egger et al. 2017; Miranda and Pelissier 1981; Ye et al. 2019) and a dynamic in vitro human gastric simulator (HGS) have shown that the stomach juice and the mechanical grinding can cause liquids such as milk to coag-ulate, which prolongs their digestion rate and…”

“Mun, Kim, and McClements (2015) investigated the influence of rice starch hydrogels on the bioaccessibility of emulsified-lipid-solubilized β-carotene.”

“…i.e., homogenization, heating, etc., can vary the interactions between the milk proteins and the other constituents, hence changing the kinetics of milk digestion (Egger et al. 2017; Huppertz and Chia 2021; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2020; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2019; Ye et al. 2017; Ye et al. 2019).”

“The coagulation of caseins in the stomach, driven by pepsin, and the acidic environment led to a protracted gastric digestion, resulting in slower release of the fortified ingredients (Hodgkinson et al. 2018; Mudgil and Barak 2019; Qazi et al. 2022).”

“In general, these compounds are produced as secondary metabolites in small quantities and can modulate metabolic processes (Graebin et al. 2019; Khaw et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2016).”

“Most foods never attain thermodynamic equilibrium, e.g., the softening and loss of crunchiness in fruits as they go through ripening and senescence leads to undesirable product quality (Agarwal et al. 2019; Joardder, Kumar, and Karim 2017).”

“However, they differ greatly from dairy-based milk systems in terms of their protein structures and interactions with fortified bioactive chemicals during processing and digestion (Fructuoso et al. 2021).”

“In general, these compounds are produced as secondary metabolites in small quantities and can modulate metabolic processes (Graebin et al. 2019; Khaw et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2016).”

“The direct addition of organic acids to the dough can significantly reduce the mixing time and make the dough weaker (Lu et al. 2021; Su et al. 2019).”

“…contain a sophisticated biopolymer network that can hold a lot of water (Aguilera 2019; Alsanei, Chen, processing, undergo further structural reorganization during digestion, which impacts on the release of enriched bioactive compounds from the food structure (Mao et al. 2017; Qazi et al. 2021).”

“In another study, Gómez-Estaca, Gavara, and Hernández-Muñoz (2015) investigated the bioaccessibility of curcumin after subjecting fish gels containing encapsulated curcumin micro-particles to an in vitro gastrointestinal digestion.”

“…i.e., homogenization, heating, etc., can vary the interactions between the milk proteins and the other constituents, hence changing the kinetics of milk digestion (Egger et al. 2017; Huppertz and Chia 2021; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2020; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2019; Ye et al. 2017; Ye et al. 2019).”

“Ye et al. (2009) evaluated the lipid oxidation, sensory stability, and microstructure of processed cheese enriched with fish oil emulsion.”

“Additionally, encapsulation systems can be designed to control the targeted delivery of bioactive compounds in the gastrointestinal environment, thus enhancing their bioaccessibility and bioavailability (Donhowe et al. 2014; Jiang, Liao, and Charcosset 2020; Sabet et al. 2021).”

“Processing can be used to develop, from basic raw materials, more complex structures in foods; for example, yogurt, cheese, and ice cream are all milk-based products with distinctive structures and properties (Dima et al. 2020).”

“…been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al. 2020).”

“…been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al. 2020).”

“Additionally, heat, light, oxygen, an acidic or basic pH, and water can make these bioactive chemicals vulnerable, which leads to undesirable changes in the products (Augustin and Sanguansri 2015; Bao et al. 2019; Cifelli 2021; Raikos and Ranawana 2017).”

“Additionally, in vivo studies (Egger et al. 2017; Miranda and Pelissier 1981; Ye et al. 2019) and a dynamic in vitro human gastric simulator (HGS) have shown that the stomach juice and the mechanical grinding can cause liquids such as milk to coag-ulate, which prolongs their digestion rate and…”

“…been reported to have several health-promoting activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, among others (Eggersdorfer and Wyss 2018; Oyenihi and Smith 2019; Prasad et al. 2022; Ruhee et al. 2020; Szewczyk, Chojnacka, and Górnicka 2021; Tornesello et al. 2020).”

“The complexity of self-assembled structures in animal-or plant-based foods and structures generated in processed foods revolves around their structural orientation and their chemical composition (Aguilera 2005; Capuano et al. 2018; Flores and Kong 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007; Ubbink 2012).”

“…fats/lipids from other sources is arguably a healthier option but creates considerable hurdles in terms of texture, lubricity, and mouthfeel in comminuted products (Nacak, Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, Yıldız, Çağındı, and Serdaroğlu et al. 2021; Nieto and Lorenzo 2021; Serdaroğlu, Öztürk, and Urgu 2016).”

“The complexity of self-assembled structures in animal-or plant-based foods and structures generated in processed foods revolves around their structural orientation and their chemical composition (Aguilera 2005; Capuano et al. 2018; Flores and Kong 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007; Ubbink 2012).”

“…shown to significantly affect the restructuring of the food matrix, which further plays a major role in the release and bioavailability of active ingredients from food in the small intestine (Acevedo-Fani, Dave, and Singh 2020; Acevedo-Fani and Singh 2021; Somaratne et al. 2020; Ye et al. 2019).”

“Additionally, heat, light, oxygen, an acidic or basic pH, and water can make these bioactive chemicals vulnerable, which leads to undesirable changes in the products (Augustin and Sanguansri 2015; Bao et al. 2019; Cifelli 2021; Raikos and Ranawana 2017).”

“Moreover, the total phenolic content was found to be highest in the yogurt samples that incorporated encapsulated sour cherry phenolics (Akgün et al. 2020).”

“Zheng et al. (2019) compared the efficacy of curcumin crystals dispersed in water (control) with three delivery systems produced using the pH-shift method: curcumin nanocrystals; curcumin-loaded nanoemulsions; and curcumin-loaded soy oil bodies (commercial soymilk).”

“…systems is associated with a specific formulation that involves combining the appropriate ratios of carrier materials, functional substances, and one or more biopolymeric emulsifier layers with the right hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (Bao et al. 2019; McClements 2018; Qazi et al. 2015; Zhu 2017).”

“…number of teeth and chewing cycles, bite force applied by jaw muscular activity, amount of saliva produced to bind the masticated food into a coherent and slippery bolus, and the different phases of the foods including solids, semi-solids, or even liquids (Liu et al. 2017; van der Bilt 2009).”

“The heterogeneous particles of the bolus are further hydrolyzed by the gastric secretions, which convert the dispersed nutrients into more readily bioavailable forms (Kong and Singh 2009).”

“As liquid foods generally lack structures that need to be broken down, they empty from the stomach rapidly without a lag phase, thus resulting in a minimum matrix effect (Siegel et al. 1988; Ye 2021).”

“…replacement of synthetic antioxidants and antimicrobials in recent years, meat products incorporating bioactive-loaded oil-in-water emulsions have also demonstrated an improvement in the fat content to fulfill consumer demand (Domínguez et al. 2021; Keenan et al. 2015; Robert et al. 2019).”

“Ezhilarasi et al. (2014) studied the effect of both unencapsulated and microencapsulated Garcinia fruit extract on the quality of bread.”

“The integration of bioactive compounds has been proven to have an impact on the structural characteristics of the finished product in addition to the protective effect of encapsulation on the fortified bioactive compound (Delfanian and Sahari 2020; Tolve et al. 2023).”

“Papillo, Arlorio, et al. (2019) added microencapsulated cocoa husk polyphenols to model biscuits to increase their stability during baking.”

“Niu et al. (2020) showed that, when used as a food system, a high-protein beverage improved the absorption of an enriched coenzyme-Q10-loaded nanoemulsion by boosting the lipolytic activity, in comparison with a coenzyme-Q10 nanoemulsion and coenzyme Q10 dissolved in oil.”

“Similarly, Zheng, Zhou, and McClements (2021) encapsulated curcumin in the oil bodies of plant-based milk analogues (coconut, cashew, almond, and oat milks) using the same pH-driven method.”

“Roman, Burri, and Singh (2012) used in vitro digestion models, i.e., a static shaking water bath and an HGS, to study the release and bioaccessibility of β-carotene from fortified almond butter. β-Carotene oil (oil) and whey protein isolate–alginate–chitosan capsules (capsule) containing β-carotene…”

“In another investigation, (Istenič, Cerc Korošec, and Poklar Ulrih 2016) tested the storage stability of epigallocat-echin gallate in free form, entrapped into liposomes, and into alginate and chitosan microparticles loaded with epi-gallocatechin gallate liposomes in a fruit nectar.”

“Luo et al. (2019) investigated the break-down behavior in the mouth of capsaicinoid-containing whey protein emulsion gel structures; 18 human subjects chewed the gels, i.e., soft/elastic gel, semi-solid gel, and hard/brittle gel.”

“Our recent study investigated the in vitro digestion of yogurt-and cheese-like model gels that were fortified with curcumin nanoemulsion (Qazi et al. 2021).”

“Thus, an understanding of the structural properties of food materials is important for proper control of food processing operations as well as for improvement in the quality of the final product (Karim et al. 2018; Lamothe et al. 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007).”

“Tan et al. (2018) investigated the impact of storage and the yogurt matrix on the stability of tocotrienols encapsulated in chitosan–alginate microcapsules.”

“…animal-tissue-based fibrous structures, plant-based fleshy materials, and encapsulated plant embryos, not only impact functionality and digestibility but also significantly impact the release of nutrients and the entrapped bioactive compounds (Acevedo-Fani, Dave, and Singh 2020; Cifelli 2021).”

“…i.e., homogenization, heating, etc., can vary the interactions between the milk proteins and the other constituents, hence changing the kinetics of milk digestion (Egger et al. 2017; Huppertz and Chia 2021; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2020; Mulet-Cabero et al. 2019; Ye et al. 2017; Ye et al. 2019).”

“…fats/lipids from other sources is arguably a healthier option but creates considerable hurdles in terms of texture, lubricity, and mouthfeel in comminuted products (Nacak, Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, Yıldız, Çağındı, and Serdaroğlu et al. 2021; Nieto and Lorenzo 2021; Serdaroğlu, Öztürk, and Urgu 2016).”

“…e.g., creaming of oil/fat, protein aggregation, and the high viscosity of carbohydrates, some fortified liquid foods can remain in the stomach for longer periods of time (Araiza-Calahorra et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2016; Niu et al. 2020; Steingoetter et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2021; Ye 2021).”

“The segmentation and peristaltic movement patterns in the small intestine help to mix the chyme and increase its interaction with the villous surfaces (Feher 2017; Nadia et al. 2021).”

“Luo et al. (2021) extended this work by subjecting the whey protein soft and hard emulsion gels to in vitro gastrointestinal digestion to evaluate the influence of the gel structures on the bioaccessibility of capsaicinoids.”

“Recent research utilizing the dynamic gastric model, i.e., the HGS, has demonstrated that different plant-based milk systems go through various physicochemical changes in the gastric compartment (Wang et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2022; Wang, Ye, and Singh 2020).”

“The rate of digestion of the bolus is determined by the time required for the gastric secretions to reach the walls of the surrounding matrix and free the bio-active compound from the matrix (Figure 2) (Bornhorst and Singh 2014; Guo et al. 2020; Lentle and Janssen 2011).”

“…replacement of synthetic antioxidants and antimicrobials in recent years, meat products incorporating bioactive-loaded oil-in-water emulsions have also demonstrated an improvement in the fat content to fulfill consumer demand (Domínguez et al. 2021; Keenan et al. 2015; Robert et al. 2019).”

“Gelation is an irreversible because milk protein undergoes rearrangements, fusion, and syneresis during and after gelation (Fagan et al. 2017; Lucey 2008; Panthi et al. 2019).”

“…replacement of synthetic antioxidants and antimicrobials in recent years, meat products incorporating bioactive-loaded oil-in-water emulsions have also demonstrated an improvement in the fat content to fulfill consumer demand (Domínguez et al. 2021; Keenan et al. 2015; Robert et al. 2019).”

“The direct addition of organic acids to the dough can significantly reduce the mixing time and make the dough weaker (Lu et al. 2021; Su et al. 2019).”

“…than that of liquid matrices, and semi-solid matrices contain a sophisticated biopolymer network that can hold a lot of water (Aguilera 2019; Alsanei, Chen, processing, undergo further structural reorganization during digestion, which impacts on the release of enriched bioactive compounds…”

“…the beverage containing solid lipid nanoparticles had higher curcumin bioaccessibility than the other beverages, implying that lipid digestion products from liquid lipids bound with the salts in the beverage, preventing the formation of mixed micelles (Gonçalves, Vicente, and Pinheiro 2023).”

“Tao et al. (2017) developed a steppogenin, loaded microemulsion to increase its solubility and stability in aqueous solu-tion and studied microemulsions’ ability to prevent oxidation of fresh apple juice.”

“Likewise, beverages made by structurally modifying milk proteins during fermentation, such as drinking yogurt, have been shown to alter the digestion kinetics and the release of entrapped phenolics in the gastrointestinal tract (Altin, Gültekin-Özgüven, and Ozcelik 2018).”

“Mun et al. (2016) extended this work by studying the influence of methylcel-lulose (0–0.2”

“In another study, Rafiee et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of phenolic compounds containing nanoli-posomes on the oxidative stability, microbial spoilage, and sensory properties of mayonnaise samples during storage.”

“Following gastric digestion of the food, its digestion is continued in the small intestine, where the macromolecules are predominantly broken down and water and nutrients are absorbed (Campbell, Berry, and Liang 2019; Li et al. 2020).”

“…shown to significantly affect the restructuring of the food matrix, which further plays a major role in the release and bioavailability of active ingredients from food in the small intestine (Acevedo-Fani, Dave, and Singh 2020; Acevedo-Fani and Singh 2021; Somaratne et al. 2020; Ye et al. 2019).”

“Wyspiańska et al. (2019) designed an isotonic drink that was fortified with inulin-or maltodextrin-microencapsulated soybean isoflavone to investigate the impact of the microencapsulation process on the stability and antioxidant activity of isoflavones during a simulated in vitro gastrointestinal…”

“Recent research utilizing the dynamic gastric model, i.e., the HGS, has demonstrated that different plant-based milk systems go through various physicochemical changes in the gastric compartment (Wang et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2022; Wang, Ye, and Singh 2020).”

“Another study investigated the digestion dynamics of a stirred yoghurt matrix enriched with the flavonoid rutin, as well as how interactions between the food matrix and rutin influenced the flavonoid’s release and bio-accessibility throughout digestion (Acevedo-Fani et al. 2021).”

“…pivotal role in the digestion in the small intestine, firstly, by drastically changing the pH of the gastric chyme with bicarbonate ions to pH the small intestine, the undigested material, such as dietary fiber, enters the colon, where it is fermented by the residing microbiota (Wong et al., 2012).”

“Zaidel et al. (2014) investigated the storage and stability characteristics of margarine, i.e., a water-in-oil emulsion, containing both nonencapsulated and encapsulated antho-cyanins from roselle and red cabbage.”

“Additionally, encapsulation systems can be designed to control the targeted delivery of bioactive compounds in the gastrointestinal environment, thus enhancing their bioaccessibility and bioavailability (Donhowe et al. 2014; Jiang, Liao, and Charcosset 2020; Sabet et al. 2021).”

“Recent research utilizing the dynamic gastric model, i.e., the HGS, has demonstrated that different plant-based milk systems go through various physicochemical changes in the gastric compartment (Wang et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2022; Wang, Ye, and Singh 2020).”

“…e.g., creaming of oil/fat, protein aggregation, and the high viscosity of carbohydrates, some fortified liquid foods can remain in the stomach for longer periods of time (Araiza-Calahorra et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2016; Niu et al. 2020; Steingoetter et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2021; Ye 2021).”

“The complexity of self-assembled structures in animal-or plant-based foods and structures generated in processed foods revolves around their structural orientation and their chemical composition (Aguilera 2005; Capuano et al. 2018; Flores and Kong 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007; Ubbink 2012).”

“…emulsion method produced fewer oxidation products, which could probably be attributed to the thicker interfacial layer, which would act as a barrier to the penetration and diffusion of molecular species that support oxidation in lipids during the baking of granola bars (Hermund et al. 2016).”

“…animal-tissue-based fibrous structures, plant-based fleshy materials, and encapsulated plant embryos, not only impact functionality and digestibility but also significantly impact the release of nutrients and the entrapped bioactive compounds (Acevedo-Fani, Dave, and Singh 2020; Cifelli 2021).”

“However, changes in quality characteristics occurred less frequently in the sample containing encapsulated arjuna phenolics than in the other samples, indicating that the encapsulated form was successful in improving the storage stability of dairy drinks (Sawale et al. 2017).”

“Thus, an understanding of the structural properties of food materials is important for proper control of food processing operations as well as for improvement in the quality of the final product (Karim et al. 2018; Lamothe et al. 2017; Parada and Aguilera 2007).”

“Additionally, in vivo studies (Egger et al. 2017; Miranda and Pelissier 1981; Ye et al. 2019) and a dynamic in vitro human gastric simulator (HGS) have shown that the stomach juice and the mechanical grinding can cause liquids such as milk to coag-ulate, which prolongs their digestion rate and…”

“…number of teeth and chewing cycles, bite force applied by jaw muscular activity, amount of saliva produced to bind the masticated food into a coherent and slippery bolus, and the different phases of the foods including solids, semi-solids, or even liquids (Liu et al. 2017; van der Bilt 2009).”

“Čakarević et al. (2021) assessed the physicochemical and sensory properties of cookies fortified with pumpkin-protein-isolate-encapsulated beetroot juice polyphenols at three different levels, i.e., 10%, 15%, and 20%.”

“Meanwhile, the salivary secretion also lubricates and wets the food after it has been chewed, creating a cohesive bolus that is ready for swallowing (Chen 2009; Minekus et al. 2014; Mun and McClements 2017).”

“…e.g., creaming of oil/fat, protein aggregation, and the high viscosity of carbohydrates, some fortified liquid foods can remain in the stomach for longer periods of time (Araiza-Calahorra et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2016; Niu et al. 2020; Steingoetter et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2021; Ye 2021).”

“In addition, the incorporated encapsulated bioactives improved the health-promoting properties of the beverages (Ozdal, Yolci-Omeroglu, and Tamer 2020).”

“…the beverages (e.g., low, high pH, moisture, salts etc.), their compositions (e.g., fruit pulp, chocolate, stabilizers, etc.) and their processing conditions can be challenging that might negatively affect the fortified bioactive compounds (Aadil et al. 2019; Ozdal, Yolci-Omeroglu, and Tamer 2020).”

“In a recent study, curcumin-nanoemulsion-loaded corn starch gels made from waxy, native, and high amylose corn starches were examined in detail for their microstructure, physicochemical characteristics, and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (Qazi et al. 2023).”

“Molet-Rodríguez et al. (2023) investigated the effects of whole milk, oatmeal, and whole milk–oatmeal containing β-carotene emulsions on the rate at which the stomach emptied, the digestibility of the lipids, and the retention of β-carotene.”

“Gelation is an irreversible because milk protein undergoes rearrangements, fusion, and syneresis during and after gelation (Fagan et al. 2017; Lucey 2008; Panthi et al. 2019).”

“In comparison with the shaking water bath model, peristalsis in the HGS model resulted in a greater release of β-carotene from the almond butter enriched with oil.”

“The concept of isolating bioactive compounds from natural sources to enrich other commonly consumed foods enables achieving higher loading per serve and possibly increase the uptake (Moreno and Ilic 2018; Shahidi 2009).”

“Gelation is an irreversible because milk protein undergoes rearrangements, fusion, and syneresis during and after gelation (Fagan et al. 2017; Lucey 2008; Panthi et al. 2019).”

“Most foods never attain thermodynamic equilibrium, e.g., the softening and loss of crunchiness in fruits as they go through ripening and senescence leads to undesirable product quality (Agarwal et al. 2019; Joardder, Kumar, and Karim 2017).”

“Finally, polysaccharide–lipid complexes (Figure 5c) mimic the fat flavor in frozen desserts by encapsulating fat droplets within a starch matrix (Aguilera 2019; Qazi et al. 2024).”

“…have been successfully stabilized using microencapsulation technology, further research is needed to investigate the release kinetics of encapsulated compounds in complex food matrices and to rigorously assess bioavailability after ingestion in order to validate claimed health benefits [106].”

“Speci fi cally, it controls the digestion and absorption of target nutrients [36–38] and satiety [39–41].”

“Moreover, it aligns with current clean-label and health-oriented consumer trends [2], while ongoing research highlights the importance of optimizing carrier materials and release kinetics to maximize therapeu - tic potential [19, 20].”

“This binding is minimized by encapsulating the bioactive components, as the reactive bioactive fraction is physically isolated and insulated from the matrix interactions [47,53,54].”

“Mechanical treatments such as colloidal milling reduce particle size, disrupt plant tissues, and improve matrix homogenization, facilitating the release and dispersion of nutrients and bioactive compounds while enhancing beverage stability [3,8,54].”

“While determining the optimal dosage of plant extracts to avoid noticeable changes in appearance and mouthfeel while increasing nutritional value is a topic of current research (Olfati et al., 2025; Qazi et al., 2025).”

“Furthermore, the food matrix plays a crucial role in regulating the release and absorption of these bioactive compounds during the digestion process (Qazi et al., 2025; Y. Zhang et al., 2024).”

“The Impact of Encapsulated Fish Oil on Dairy Products Scholz-Ahrens et al., 2020; Qazi et al., 2024).”

“In meat systems, proteins, lipids, and other matrix constituents may compete with cyclodextrins for binding to bioactives, influencing release behavior and potentially leading to premature release or non-uniform distribution within the matrix [89].”

“In lipid-rich systems, high crystallinity does not necessarily correspond to high ∆ H, because lipid melting transitions can involve relatively low enthalpy compared with disrupting carbohydrate-dominated crystalline domains [48].”

“To address the major challenge, scientists proved that encapsulation of bio-active compounds can prevent their degradation and release at the specific site (intestine), to perform their functional role (Bazzaz et al., 2025; Qazi et al., 2025).”

“…are food-grade or GRAS-certified; (2) scalability, i.e., whether the technology has been validated or can be adapted for industrial-scale food production; (3) Food matrix compatibility, i.e., whether the technology preserves sensory quality and complies with the regulatory framework for food [104].”

“Developed an isotonic drink that was fortified with soybean isoflavone microencapsulated with inulin or maltodextrin to investigate the influence of microencapsulation on the stability and antioxidant activity of isoflavones under simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion [84].”

“Over the past decade, there has been a growing demand for functional food materials, reflecting societal interest in enhancing health and promoting well-being through improved food innovations (Qazi et al. 2024).”