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Consequences of a New Hot Component of the Interstellar Medium
Abstract
The suggestion that the observed 0.25 keV X-ray background and O VI sabsorption lines are produced by a new, hot (T∼106 K), diffuse component of the medium is examined in the context of both a steady-state and a time-dependent model. It is concluded that such a component can explain the two observations only if (1) the pressure of the cooler interstellar medium is 10 times higher than the previously estimated p/k∼2000 cm-3K; (2) a mechanism such as the proposed convective-radiative "galactic fountain" exists to cool the hot gas; and (3) another component is responsible for the presence of O VI at temperatures below 106 K. Subject headings: interstellar: matter - X-rays: general
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The Molecular Outflow in NGC 253 at a Resolution of Two Parsecs
Krieger, N., Bolatto, A., Walter, F., et al. (2019) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 47
Far-Ultraviolet Astronomy on the Astro-1 Space Shuttle Mission
Davidsen, A. F. (1993) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.259.5093.327 · Cited by 47
Intermediate- and high-velocity clouds in the Milky Way – I. Covering factors and vertical heights
Lehner, N., Howk, J. C., Marasco, A., & Fraternali, F. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac987 · Cited by 46
Nuclear/Circumnuclear Starbursts and Active Galactic Nucleus Mass Accretion in Seyfert Galaxies
Watabe, Y., Kawakatu, N., & Imanishi, M. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/528933 · Cited by 46
“The superbubble driven by sequential explosions of supernovae in an OB association located in the plane-stratified gas distribution may also compress the surrounding gas due to shock (Shapiro & Field 1976; Tomisaka & Ikeuchi 1986; Norman & Ikeuchi 1989) and new stars may be born there.”
BackgroundMass pick-up in astronomical flows
Hartquist, T. W., & Dyson, J. E. (1988) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1007/bf00793207 · Cited by 46
MILKY WAY DISK-HALO TRANSITION IN H I: PROPERTIES OF THE CLOUD POPULATION
Ford, H. A., Lockman, F. J., & McClure‐Griffiths, N. M. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/722/1/367 · Cited by 45
“They might result from a galactic fountain (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Houck & Bregman 1990; Spitoni et al. 2008), H I shells and supershells (McClure-Griffiths et al. 2006), or interstellar turbulence (e.g., Audit & Hennebelle 2005).”
BackgroundOtte, B., Reynolds, R. J., Gallagher, J. S., et al. (2001) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/322343 · Cited by 45
“Dynamical models of galaxies, such as ““ galactic fountains ÏÏ (Shapiro & Field 1976) and ““ chimneys ÏÏ (Norman & Ikeuchi 1989), describe how gas can be transported from the disk into the halo.”
BackgroundResolved magnetic structures in the disk-halo interface of NGC 628
Mulcahy, D. D., Beck, R., & Heald, G. H. (2016) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629907 · Cited by 45
“Several theories exist that describe how star formation expels hot gas vertically into the halo, namely the galactic fountain model (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980), the chimney model (Norman & Ikeuchi 1988), and the galactic wind model (Breitschwerdt et al. 1991) relevant to quiescent star…”
BackgroundA kinematic study of the irregular dwarf galaxy NGC 2366 using H i and H$\sf \alpha$ observations
van Eymeren, J., Marcelin, M., Koribalski, B. S., et al. (2008) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809585 · Cited by 45
HALOGAS: Extraplanar gas in NGC 3198
Gentile, G., Józsa, G. I. G., Serra, P., Heald, G. H., de Blok, W. J. G., Fraternali, F., Patterson, M. T., Walterbos, R. A. M., & Oosterloo, T. A. (2013) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321116/pdf · Cited by 45
An extragalactic HII region in the Virgo cluster
Cortese, L., Gavazzi, G., Boselli, A., & Iglésias-Páramo, J. (2004) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20031755 · Cited by 44
“These observations suggest a complex gas circulation between the disk and the halo of starforming spiral galaxies, supporting the galactic fountain model (e.g. Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundHigh–resolution imaging of compact high–velocity clouds
de Heij, V., Braun, R. L., & Burton, W. B. (2002) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020640 · Cited by 45
Direct numerical simulations of the galactic dynamo in the kinematic growing phase
Gissinger, C., Fromang, S., & Dormy, E. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2009.00616.x · Cited by 44
“Due to the simplicity of our model, this velocity could be attributed to turbulent diamagnetism (Sokoloff & Shukurov 1990) or to the galactic fountain mechanism (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundDiamond-Stanic, A. M., Coil, A. L., Moustakas, J., Tremonti, C. A., Sell, P. H., Mendez, A. J., Hickox, R. C., & Rudnick, G. H. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/824/1/24 · Cited by 44
“…is relevant because an extended disk may trace recent accretion of gas from the intergalactic medium (e.g., Ostriker & Binney 1989; Stewart et al. 2013), and extraplanar halo gas may trace outflows or gas recycling in a galactic fountain (e.g., Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Ford et al. 2014).”
BackgroundH I clouds in the proximity of M 33
Grossi, M., Giovanardi, C., Corbelli, E., Giovanelli, R., Haynes, M. P., Martin, A. M., Saintonge, A., & Dowell, J. (2008) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810220 · Cited by 44
“As the gas flows into the halo it radiatively cools down and then falls back onto the disc appearing as high-velocity moving gas (Shapiro & Field 1976, de Avillez 2000).”
BackgroundCAN THE LYMAN CONTINUUM LEAKED OUT OF H II REGIONS EXPLAIN DIFFUSE IONIZED GAS?
Seon, K. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/703/1/1159 · Cited by 44
“Such a large covering factor of low density regions may be achieved by fountain flow or chimneys around OB associations (Shapiro & Field 1976; Norman & Ikeuchi 1989).”
BackgroundA population of weak metal-line absorbers surrounding the Milky Way 1Preprint
Charlton, J. C., Fangano, A. P. M., Bekhti, N. B., & Masiero, J. R. (2009) · Cited by 42
High-velocity clouds as streams of ionized and neutral gas in the halo of the Milky Way?Preprint
Lehner, N., Howk, J. C., Thom, C., Fox, A. J., Tumlinson, J., & Meiring, J. D. (2016) · Cited by 44
A DEEP X-RAY VIEW OF THE HOT HALO IN THE EDGE-ON SPIRAL GALAXY NGC 891
Hodges-Kluck, E. J., & Bregman, J. N. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/762/1/12 · Cited by 45
“Instead, they may be gas expelled from the disk by supernovae (SNe) in a “galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundMarasco, A., Fraternali, F., Lehner, N., & Howk, J. C. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1172 · Cited by 44
Diffuse X‐Ray Emission from the Spiral Galaxy NGC 2403 Discovered withChandra
Fraternali, F., Cappi, M., Sancisi, R., & Oosterloo, T. A. (2002) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/342396 · Cited by 43
“A possible interpretation is that of a galactic fountain (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980) and the observed neutral gas may be the result of cooling of ionised gas blown up from the disk into the halo.”
BackgroundOn the origin of the warm–hot absorbers in the Milky Way's halo
Marasco, A., Marinacci, F., & Fraternali, F. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt836 · Cited by 42
“The material ejected from the disc travels through the halo for ∼ 80− 100Myr before returning back, creating a cycle of gas that goes under the name of ‘galactic fountain’ (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundA low H I column density filament in NGC 2403: signature of interaction or accretion
de Blok, W. J. G., Keating, G. K., Pisano, D. J., et al. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423880 · Cited by 41
“Searches for accreting gas are hampered by the difficulty of distinguishing external, accreting gas from gas that has been expelled from the disk by processes of star formation (the socalled galactic fountain; Shapiro & Field 1976).”
BackgroundPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPLEX C HALO CLOUDS
Hsu, W.-H., Putman, M. E., Heitsch, F., Stanimirović, S., Peek, J. E. G., & Clark, S. E. (2011) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-6256/141/2/57 · Cited by 41
“The suggested origin models include condensed gas originating from the “Galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Fraternali & Binney 2008), warm/hot halo gas cooling and fragmenting during the cooling process (e.g., Maller & Bullock 2004; Kaufmann et al. 2006; Sommer-Larsen 2006;…”
Composition and Evolution of Interstellar Clouds
Wooden, D. H., Charnley, S. B., & Ehrenfreund, P. (2004) · University of Arizona Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctv1v7zdq5.10 · Cited by 41
The Absence of Stars in Compact High‐Velocity Clouds
Simon, J. D., & Blitz, L. (2002) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/341005 · Cited by 49
“Other potentially viable theories to explain the HVC puzzle include the Galactic Fountain model (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980) and the Tidal Debris model.”
BackgroundNeutrino-Lifetime Constraints from Neutral Hydrogen in the Galactic Halo
Melott, A. L., & Sciama, D. W. (1981) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.46.1369 · Cited by 41
Schmidt, P., Krause, M., Heesen, V., et al. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834995 · Cited by 40
Vijayan, A., Kim, C.-G., Armillotta, L., Ostriker, E. C., & Li, M. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab8474 · Cited by 40
“Moreover, models aiming to reproduce the extra-planar gas kinematics have shown a negative vertical gradient of the rotational velocity (often called a “lag”) and a global infall motion (Marasco & Fraternali 2011), lending support to a fountain flow origin (e.g., Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundDiffuse Ionized Gas in Simulations of Multiphase, Star-forming Galactic Disks
Kado-Fong, E., Kim, J., Ostriker, E. C., & Kim, C. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9abd · Cited by 41
“Proposed mechanisms for the origin of extraplanar warm gas include the cooling of hot galactic fountain gas (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980), gas accretion from the intergalactic medium (Binney 2005), and entrainment of warm ISM clouds by hot winds.”
BackgroundSoler, J. D., Beuther, H., Syed, J., Wang, Y., Anderson, L. D., Glover, S. C. O., Hennebelle, P., Heyer, M., Henning, T. K., Izquierdo, A. F., et al. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038882 · Cited by 40
“This star formation burst can be associated to an enhancement of SN feedback forming a “Galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Fraternali 2017; Kim & Ostriker 2018), whose remants shape the vertical Hi filaments.”
BackgroundCloudy with a chance of rain: accretion braking of cold clouds
Tan, B., Oh, S. P., & Gronke, M. B. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad236 · Cited by 40
An absorption-selected survey of neutral gas in the Milky Way halo
Bekhti, N. B., Winkel, B., Richter, P., Kerp, J., Klein, U., & Murphy, M. T. (2012) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118673 · Cited by 39
“…is continuously fuelled with gas by different mechanisms that are connected with the on-going formation and evolution of galaxies (outflows, galaxy merging and gas accretion from the intergalactic medium, e.g. Shapiro & Field 1976; Fraternali et al. 2004; Kaufmann et al. 2006; Sancisi et al. 2008).”
Background2 Continuum Halos in Nearby Galaxies – an EVLA Survey (CHANG-ES) – I: Introduction to the SurveyPreprint
Irwin, J., Beck, R., Benjamin, R. A., et al. (2012) · Cited by 40
Investigation of the cosmic ray population and magnetic field strength in the halo of NGC 891
Mulcahy, D. D., Horneffer, A., Beck, R., et al. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832837 · Cited by 39
“Possible transport mechanisms are a “galactic wind” with a velocity sufficient for escape (Uhlig et al. 2012), a “galactic fountain” with cold gas returning to the galaxy (Shapiro & Field 1976; Fraternali 2017), or “chimney” outbreaks driven by hot superbubbles (Norman & Ikeuchi 1989).”
BackgroundThe Nature of Ionized Gas in the Milky Way Galactic Fountain
Werk, J., Rubin, K. H. R., Bish, H., Prochaska, J., Zheng, Y., O'Meara, J., Lenz, D., Hummels, C., & Deason, A. (2019) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab54cf · Cited by 24
“This cycle is often envisioned as a Galactic fountain, in which hot, over-pressurized gas is ejected from the disk into the halo, and subsequently cools, recombines and rains back down onto the disk (Shapiro & Field 1976; Fraternali & Binney 2008).”
BackgroundDiamond‐Stanic, A. M., Coil, A. L., Moustakas, J., Tremonti, C., Sell, P. H., Mendez, A. J., Hickox, R. C., & Rudnick, G. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 39
Liu, S., Pen, U., Macquart, J., Brisken, W. F., & Deller, A. T. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw314 · Cited by 39
“The modest lens velocities also appear consistent with the general motion of the ISM, perhaps driven by Galactic fountains (Shapiro & Field 1976) at these lati- tudes above the disk.”
BackgroundBizyaev, D., Walterbos, R. A. M., Yoachim, P., Riffel, R. A., Fernández-Trincado, J. G., Pan, K., Diamond‐Stanic, A. M., Jones, A. M., Thomas, D., Cleary, J., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6979 · Cited by 38
“…cosmological accretion from the intergalactic medium reservoir (Binney 2005), or gas associated with galactic fountain flows in galaxies that are produced by star formation in the disk (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Norman & Ikeuchi 1989; Marinacci et al. 2011; Fraternali et al. 2013).”
BackgroundHigh‐Velocity Clouds and the Local Intergalactic Medium
Richter, P. (2006) · Reviews in Modern Astronomy · doi:10.1002/9783527619030.ch2 · Cited by 37
Accretion onto disc galaxies via hot and rotating CGM inflows
Stern, J. P., Fielding, D. B., Hafen, Z., Su, K.-Y., Naor, N., Faucher‐Giguère, C., Quataert, E., & Bullock, J. S. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae824 · Cited by 53
Insights into gas heating and cooling in the disc of NGC 891 from Herschel far-infrared spectroscopy
Hughes, T., Foyle, K., Schirm, M., Parkin, T., Looze, I. D., Wilson, C., Bendo, G. J., Baes, M., Fritz, J., Boselli, A., et al. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424732 · Cited by 27
“…vertical variations in the physical conditions of the interstellar gas, particularly important for understanding possible vertical gas outflows driven by star formation and the structure of the A17, page 2 of 25 multiphase ISM (see e.g. Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Norman & Ikeuchi 1989).”
BackgroundZheng, Y., Peek, J., Putman, M., & Werk, J. (2017) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaf6eb · Cited by 27
The effect of differential galactic winds on the chemical evolution of galaxies
Recchi, S., Spitoni, E., Matteucci, F., et al. (2008) · ArTS Archivio della ricerca di Trieste (University of Trieste https://www.units.it/) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20080987910.1051/0004-6361/200911756 · Cited by 36
The Galactic dynamics revealed by the filamentary structure in atomic hydrogen emission
Soler, J. D., Miville-Deschênes, M.-A., Molinari, S., Klessen, R. S., Hennebelle, P., Testi, L., McClure‐Griffiths, N. M., Beuther, H., Elia, D., Schisano, E., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243334 · Cited by 36
Lee, S., & Irwin, J. (1997) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/304840 · Cited by 36
“Considerable effort has been expended in the first category beginning with the “galactic fountain” model of Shapiro and Field (1976).”
MethodH i Clouds in the Lower Halo. I. The Galactic All‐Sky Survey Pilot Region
Ford, H. A., McClure‐Griffiths, N. M., Lockman, F. J., Bailin, J., Calabretta, M. R., Kalberla, P. M. W., Murphy, T., & Pisano, D. J. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/592188 · Cited by 34
GHIGLS: H I MAPPING AT INTERMEDIATE GALACTIC LATITUDE USING THE GREEN BANK TELESCOPE
Martin, P. G., Blagrave, K. P. M., Lockman, F. J., Gonçalves, D. P., Boothroyd, A. I., Joncas, G., Miville-Deschênes, M.-A., & Stéphan, G. (2015) · Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) · Cited by 35
HIGH-VELOCITY CLOUDS IN THE NEARBY SPIRAL GALAXY M 83
Miller, E. D., Bregman, J. N., & Wakker, B. P. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/692/1/470 · Cited by 35
“After the gas cools, it loses its buoyancy and spirals back to the disk, either as small clouds or sheets (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
The H [CSC]i[/CSC] Environment of Three Superbubbles in the Large Magellanic Cloud
Oey, M. S., Groves, B. A., Staveley‐Smith, L., et al. (2002) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/338092 · Cited by 35
“Superbubble evolution also directly impacts the relative volumes of enriched, coronal gas in galactic disks versus halos (e.g., Shapiro & Field 1976).”
BackgroundThe Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way
Sarkar, K. C. (2024) · The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review · doi:10.1007/s00159-024-00152-1 · Cited by 34
“Warm / cold clouds have also been observed at higher latitudes ( | b | ≳ 10 (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980).”
BackgroundSoler, J. D., Beuther, H., Syed, J., Wang, Y., Anderson, L. D., Glover, S. C. O., Hennebelle, P., Heyer, M. H., Henning, T. K., Izquierdo, A. F., et al. (2020) · Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) · Cited by 34
The impact of cosmic rays on dynamical balance and disc–halo interaction in L⋆ disc galaxies
Chan, T. K., Kereš, D., Gurvich, A. B., Hopkins, P. F., Trapp, C., Ji, S., & Faucher‐Giguère, C. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2236 · Cited by 34
Superbubble evolution in disk galaxies
Baumgartner, V., & Breitschwerdt, D. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321261 · Cited by 33
“If the energy input is not high enough, the gas will fall back onto the disk due to gravity, after loss of pressure support, forming a galactic fountain (Shapiro & Field 1976; de Avillez 2000).”
BackgroundGas Accretion onto the Milky Way
Richter, P. (2017) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52512-9_2 · Cited by 34
“…for the origin of near solar-metallicity IVCs is, that these structures represent the back-flow of cooled gas from the galactic fountain process (Shapiro & Field 1976; Houck & Bregman 1990); i.e., they originate from metal-enriched gas that has been ejected from the disk by supernova explosions…”
NGC 5775: Anatomy of a disk-halo interface
Lee, S., Irwin, J., Dettmar, R. ‐., et al. (2001) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011046/pdf · Cited by 34
Observations of Absorption Lines from Highly Ionized Atoms
Jenkins, E. B. (1987) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-3753-6_23 · Cited by 34
van Eymeren, J., Koribalski, B. S., López-Sánchez, Á. R., et al. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16923.x · Cited by 33
“One scenario is that the gas cools down in the halo and eventually falls back onto the galactic disc (outflow, galactic fountain scenario, Shapiro & Field 1976).”
BackgroundInvestigation of the cosmic ray population and magnetic field strength in the halo of NGC 891
Mulcahy, D. D., Horneffer, A., Beck, R., et al. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832837/pdf · Cited by 33
Regulation of Star Formation by a Hot Circumgalactic Medium
Carr, C., Bryan, G. L., Fielding, D. B., Pandya, V., & Somerville, R. S. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acc4c7 · Cited by 41
“…are either deposited into the circumgalactic medium (CGM; Heitsch & Putman 2009), recycled and accreted back onto the disk in a “galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Marasco et al. 2022), or even driven out of the halo entirely (Oppenheimer & Davé 2008; Kereš et al. 2009;…”
BackgroundCool circumgalactic gas of passive galaxies from cosmological inflow
Afruni, A., Fraternali, F., & Pezzulli, G. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201835002 · Cited by 34
A LOW-METALLICITY MOLECULAR CLOUD IN THE LOWER GALACTIC HALO
Hernández, A. K., Wakker, B. P., Benjamin, R. A., French, D. M., Kerp, J., Lockman, F. J., O'Toole, S. J., & Winkel, B. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/777/1/19 · Cited by 32
“Generally, it is thought that these objects are infalling, either as vertical galactic circulation (i.e. the Galactic Fountain; Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980) or as clouds accreting from intergalactic space (Oort 1970).”
BackgroundHydrostatic models for the rotation of extra-planar gas\n in disk galaxies
Barnabè, M., Ciotti, L., Fraternali, F., & Sancisi, R. (2006) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053386/pdf · Cited by 32
Crawford, I., Lallement, R., Price, R. J., Sfeir, D. M., Wakker, B. P., & Welsh, B. Y. (2002) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05959.x · Cited by 31
“Galactic ‘fountain’ fed by supernovae and/or bursting superbubbles in the disc (Shapiro & Field 1976; Spitzer 1990), or whether it is being heated and/or ionized by a variety of processes such as photoionization by extra-Galactic background radiation (Bregman & Harrington 1986).”
BackgroundResultA Turbulent Model for the Interstellar Medium. III. Stratification and Supernova Explosions
Gazol‐Patino, A., & Passot, T. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/307306 · Cited by 32
Scattering of Non‐Spherical Molecules
Loesch, H. J. (1980) · Advances in chemical physics · doi:10.1002/9780470142615.ch9 · Cited by 32
Cloud-by-cloud multiphase investigation of the circumgalactic medium of low-redshift galaxies
Sameer, S., Charlton, J. C., Wakker, B. P., Kacprzak, G. G., Nielsen, N. M., Churchill, C. W., Richter, P., Muzahid, S., Ho, S. H., Nateghi, H., et al. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae962 · Cited by 32
Hess, K. M., Pisano, D. J., Wilcots, E. M., & Chengalur, J. N. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/699/1/76 · Cited by 31
“For other HVCs, Shapiro & Field (1976) and Bregman (1980) postulated that a galactic fountain mechanism could be responsible for raising hot gas into the Galactic halo where it would cool, condense, and then rain back down on the disk.”
BackgroundH2absorption in a dense interstellar filament in the Milky Way halo
Richter, P., Sembach, K. R., & Howk, J. C. (2003) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030722 · Cited by 31
“…clouds (IVCs and HVCs, respectively) trace various processes that circulate gas through the Milky Way halo, such as the “Galactic Fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976; Houck & Bregman 1991), infall of low-metallicity gas from intergalactic space (Wakker et al. 1999; Richter et al. 2001a,b),…”
BackgroundThe warm-hot circumgalactic medium of the Milky Way as seen by eROSITA
Locatelli, N. T., Ponti, G., Zheng, X., Merloni, A., Becker, W., Comparat, J., Dennerl, K., Freyberg, M. J., Sasaki, M., & Yeung, M. C. H. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347061 · Cited by 31
Do high energy astrophysical neutrinos trace star formation?
Emig, K. L., Lunardini, C., & Windhorst, R. (2015) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2015/12/029 · Cited by 30
“Superbubbles are believed to be the origin of “galactic fountains” [52, 53].”
BackgroundGas and dark matter in the Sculptor group: NGC 55
Westmeier, T., Koribalski, B. S., & Braun, R. L. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1271 · Cited by 30
HALOGAS observations of NGC 4414: fountains, interaction, and ram pressure
de Blok, W. J. G., Józsa, G. I. G., Patterson, M., et al. (2014) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322517 · Cited by 30
“How much gas is expelled from the disk due to star formation (“galactic fountain”; Shapiro & Field 1976); how much gas stays in the halo and how much eventually falls back on the disk?”
BackgroundSENSITIVE 21 cm OBSERVATIONS OF NEUTRAL HYDROGEN IN THE LOCAL GROUP NEAR M31
Wolfe, S. A., Lockman, F. J., & Pisano, D. J. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/816/2/81 · Cited by 29
“The so called “galactic fountain” model of gas accretion (e.g. Bregman 1980; Shapiro & Field 1976) states that supernovae kick material above the disk of a spiral galaxy, which then rains back down onto the disk as it cools.”
BackgroundThe Milky Way halo as a QSO absorption-line system
Herenz, P., Richter, P., Charlton, J. C., & Masiero, J. R. (2012) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220531 · Cited by 29
“The most likely origin for the IVCs (which predominantly have nearly solar metallicities) is the “galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field (1976); Houck & Bregman (1990)).”
BackgroundA Graphical Interpretation of Circumgalactic Precipitation
Voit, G. M. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abe11f · Cited by 29
Probing O vi Emission in the Halos of Edge‐on Spiral Galaxies
Otte, B., Murphy, E. M., Howk, J. C., Wang, Q. D., Oegerle, W. R., & Sembach, K. R. (2003) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/375535 · Cited by 29
Sharda, P., Ginzburg, O., Krumholz, M. R., Forbes, J. C., Wisnioski, E., Mingozzi, M., Zovaro, H. R. M., & Dekel, A. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae088 · Cited by 28
TESTING A DYNAMICAL EQUILIBRIUM MODEL OF THE EXTRAPLANAR DIFFUSE IONIZED GAS IN NGC 891
Boettcher, E., Zweibel, E. G., Gallagher, J. S., et al. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/832/2/118 · Cited by 28
““Superbubble” (Mac Low & McCray 1988), “galactic chimney” (Norman & Ikeuchi 1989), “galactic fountain” (Shapiro & Field 1976), and galactic wind (e.g., Veilleux et al. 2005) models all describe the local or global circulation of gas between the disk and the halo due to star formation activity in OB…”
BackgroundMolecular Gas Distribution Perpendicular to the Galactic Plane
Su, Y., Yang, J., YAN, Q.-Z., Zhang, S., Wang, H., Sun, Y., Chen, Z., Wang, C., Zhou, X., Chen, X., et al. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abe5ab · Cited by 28
“…Galactic plane may play important roles in the origin of the disk-population gas (e.g., the stellar feedback from massive stellar winds and/or supernova explosions; see the Galactic fountain models in Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Houck & Bregman 1990; Spitoni et al. 2008; Soler et al. 2020).”
BackgroundKwak, K., Shelton, R. L., & Raley, E. A. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/699/2/1775 · Cited by 28
“In the fountain scenario (Shapiro & Field 1976), material from the Galactic disk is pushed into the lower Galactic halo by superbubbles (made by a series of co-located supernovae in an OB cluster), radiatively cools, and then falls back to the Galactic disk due to the force of gravity.”
Galyardt, J., & Shelton, R. L. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8205/816/1/l18 · Cited by 27
“While the origins of HVCs are multiple and long debated (see, for example, Shapiro & Field 1976, Gardiner & Noguchi 1996, Wakker & van Woerden 1996), it is likely that some HVCs are dark matter–confined and represent a portion of the missing dark matter minihalo population (Blitz et al. 1999, Braun…”
BackgroundBish, H. V., Werk, J. K., Prochaska, J. X., Rubin, K. H. R., Zheng, Y., O’Meara, J. M., & Deason, A. J. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab3414 · Cited by 27
“…a “galactic fountain” (Bregman 1980), in which hot gas is ejected from the disk via supernovae, stellar winds, and/or an active galactic nucleus (AGN), and then cools and rains back down onto the disk to trigger new star formation (Shapiro & Field 1976; Savage & Sembach 1994; Sembach et al. 2003).”
BackgroundMAGNETIC FIELD TRANSPORT FROM DISK TO HALO VIA THE GALACTIC CHIMNEY PROCESS IN NGC 6946
Heald, G. H. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/754/2/l35 · Cited by 27
“Star formation drives vertical hot gas flows in a process which is described by the galactic fountain (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980) or chimney model (Norman & Ikeuchi 1989).”
BackgroundCool circumgalactic gas of passive galaxies from cosmological inflow
Afruni, A., Fraternali, F., & Pezzulli, G. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201835002/pdf · Cited by 27
Welsh, B. Y., Sallmen, S. M., Sfeir, D. M., Shelton, R. L., & Lallement, R. (2002) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20021165 · Cited by 27
“…origin of this gas have been proposed, which include (i) the cloud-evaporation model of McKee-Ostriker (1977), (ii) the galactic fountain model of Shapiro & Field (1976), and (iii) the supernova bubble model of Cox & Smith (1974), we note that no single model has yet Send offprint requests to:…”
MethodBorthakur, S., Tripp, T. M., Yun, M. S., Bowen, D. V., Meiring, J. D., York, D. G., & Momjian, E. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/727/1/52 · Cited by 26
“According to the Galactic Fountain model (Shapiro & Field 1976), the baryonic material deposited by the winds can eventually cool down and rain back into the galaxies.”
MethodSensitive 21 cm observations of neutral hydrogen in the local group near M31
Wolfe, S. A., Lockman, F. J., & Pisano, D. J. (2016) · The Research Repository @ WVU (West Virginia University) · Cited by 26
Gaseous haloes: Linking galaxies to the IGM
Fraternali, F., Binney, J. J., Oosterloo, T. A., & Sancisi, R. (2006) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2006.10.009 · Cited by 23
Vertically Extended Neutral Gas in the Massive Edge‐on Spiral NGC 5746
Rand, R. J., & Benjamin, R. A. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/528952 · Cited by 25
“…of the origin of these layers in a star formationY driven disk-halo cycle, which has been theoretically modeled as a general galactic fountain flow (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980), with later models incorporating the fact that mass and energy input into the halo may efficiently occur through…”
Melioli, C., Brighenti, F., & D’Ercole, A. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2008 · Cited by 24
“Outflows and galactic winds were studied by many authors both analytically (see, e.g., Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980) and numerically by hydrodynamical simulations (e.g. Tomisaka & Ikeuchi 1986; D’Ercole & Brighenti 1999; Mac Low & Ferrara 1999; Strickland & Stevens 2000; Recchi et al. 2001;…”
MethodThe Diffuse Interstellar Medium
Cox, D. P. (1990) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-0595-5_7 · Cited by 25
Simple Models for Turbulent Self‐Regulation in Galaxy Disks
Struck, C., & Smith, D. C. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/308112 · Cited by 25
“…the theory of superbubbles, breakout, chimneys, and large-scale outÑows developed quickly and joined the older theory of galactic fountains (see Shapiro & Field 1976 ; Bregman 1980 ; Cox 1981 ; Shapiro & Benjamin 1991 ; Schulman, Bregman, & Roberts 1994) in contributing to our understanding of…”
BackgroundInterstellar Mass Outflow to Galactic Halos by the Supernova-Driven Parker Instability
Kamaya, H., Mineshige, S., Shibata, K., et al. (1996) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/309910 · Cited by 25
“This is very reminiscent of a fountain (Shapiro & Field 1976).”
BackgroundDirect numerical simulations of the galactic dynamo in the kinematic growing phasePreprint
Gissinger, C., Fromang, S., & Dormy, E. (2009) · Cited by 25
Magnetic field transport from disk to halo via the galactic chimney process in NGC 6946Preprint
Heald, G. H., & Dwingeloo, A. P. A. (2016) · Cited by 25
The effect of mass loss in models of red supergiants in the Small Magellanic Cloud
Zapartas, E., de Wit, S., Antoniadis, K., et al. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202452401 · Cited by 24
Gas-phase metallicity break radii of star-forming galaxies in IllustrisTNG
Garcia, A. M., Torrey, P., Hemler, Z. S., et al. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3749 · Cited by 23
Peters, T., Girichidis, P., Gatto, A., Naab, T., Walch, S., Wünsch, R., Glover, S. C. O., Clark, P. C., Klessen, R. S., & Baczynski, C. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/813/2/l27 · Cited by 23
“Two main processes have been dicussed, namely winds driven by star formation feedback from the Galactic disk (e.g. Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Norman & Ikeuchi 1989; Joung & Mac Low 2006; Hill et al. 2012) and galactic accretion flows (e.g. Toft et al. 2002; Rasmussen et al. 2009; Crain et…”
BackgroundStructure formation in a colliding flow: The Herschel view of the Draco nebula
Miville-Deschênes, M.-A., Salomé, Q., Martin, P. G., Joncas, G., Blagrave, K. P. M., Dassas, K., Abergel, A., Beelen, A., Boulanger, F., Lagache, G., et al. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628289 · Cited by 23
“Part of this gas is the result of the Galactic fountain: hot gas rises into the halo from stellar winds and supernovae then returns to the disk due to gravity (Shapiro & Field 1976; Bregman 1980; Putman et al. 2012).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Shapiro, P. R., & Field, G. B.
- ORCID
- Shapiro, Paul R.
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 1976-05
- Volume
- 205
- Pages
- 762
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2046029142
- Cited by
- 714
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 8.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- hot interstellar medium, interstellar medium pressure, Galactic fountain, hot gas cooling, interstellar medium, steady-state model, time-dependent model
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