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On the fragmentation of cosmic gas clouds. I - The formation of galaxies and the first generation of stars
Abstract
The formation of galaxies is studied in the context of the fragmentation of massive diffuse ionized gas clouds. A semiquantitative discussion of the role of cooling indicates that there is a characteristic mass of a galaxy (of the order of 500 billion solar masses) which can fragment out of an ionized medium of density not exceeding 10 to the -25th power g/cu cm, whereas more massive galaxies attain a characteristic radius of the order of 60 kpc. The relationship between binding energy and mass is investigated for spheroidal galaxies. The role of H2 and Ly-alpha cooling in the fragmentation of primordial gas clouds is evaluated, and relatively qualitative arguments indicate that the first stars have masses of at least 0.3 solar mass with a characteristic mass of approximately 20 solar masses. When the average heavy-element abundance by mass exceeds about 0.00001, heavy-element cooling prevails over Ly-alpha cooling, and subsequent fragmentation forms second-generation stars of low characteristic mass.
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“Coincidentally, our Galaxy is at the critical mass where one expects both the SNe and black hole feedback to be active.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Silk 1977
In the citing paper
“Galactic outflows are ubiquitous in galaxies containing active star formation or supermassive black hole activity.”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Silk 1977
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Angular momentum distribution during the collapse of primordial star-forming clouds
Dutta, J. (2015) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1007/s10509-015-2622-y · Cited by 3
“One of the interesting physical problems is the distribution of the angular momentum of the baryons that have collapsed gravitationally within minihalos (Larson 1969, 1972; Silk 1977; Norman et al. 1980; Couchman & Rees 1986).”
BackgroundDesign and Scaling of an Omega-EP Experiment to Study Cold Streams Feeding Early Galaxies
Coffing, S., Angulo, A. M., Trantham, M., et al. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ab4a15 · Cited by 3
Jones, B. J. T., & Rees, M. J. (1978) · Symposium - International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s0074180900144833 · Cited by 3
Dissipation and the Formation of Galaxies
Carlberg, R. G. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-3971-4_29 · Cited by 3
Palla, F. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2973-9_31 · Cited by 3
Population III and the Microwave Background
Rowan-robinson, M., & Tarhet, P. (1982) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-7873-7_8 · Cited by 3
Thermodynamic evolution of the cosmological baryonic gas
Alimi, J., & Courty, S. (2005) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041068 · Cited by 3
“…way, on the fundamental ideas that galaxy formation results from the gas accretion and its cooling (Sunyaev & Zel’dovich 1972; Rees & Ostriker 1977; Silk 1977; White & Rees 1978) into a network of overdense structures created by the gravitating dark matter on the large scales of the universe.”
BackgroundOn the Pop. II IMF: Many More Brown Dwarfs
Zinnecker, H. (1995) · ESO astrophysics symposia · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-49217-7_40 · Cited by 3
The Critical Role of Dark Matter Halos in Driving Star Formation*
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“…leading to the formation of stars (e.g., Zel’dovich 1970; Rees & Os-Corresponding author: Jing Dou, Yingjie Peng, Qiusheng Gu doujing@nju.edu.cn, yjpeng@pku.edu.cn, qsgu@nju.edu.cn triker 1977; Silk 1977; White & Rees 1978; Navarro et al. 1996; Springel et al. 2005; Wechsler & Tinker 2018).”
On the origin of transient features in cosmological N-Body simulations
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“In the standard cosmological model, it is believed that galaxies form when gas in highly over-dense halos forms stars due to cooling, collapse and fragmentation of gas (Hoyle, 1953; Rees & Ostriker, 1977; Silk, 1977; Binney, 1977; Ben-son, 2010; Somerville & Dave, 2015; Wechsler & Tin-ker, 2018).”
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Efstathiou, G. (2003) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.astro-ph/0303623 · Cited by 2
“1 a clear account of the cooling timescale explanation of galaxy masses, predating the work of Binney (1977), Rees and Ostriker (1977) and Silk (1977) by more than twenty years.”
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Frenk, C. S., Baugh, C. M., & Cole, S. (1996) · Symposium - International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s0074180900232440 · Cited by 2
“The main ideas here were put forward nearly twenty years ago by Rees & Ostriker (1977), Silk (1977) and Binney (1977).”
BackgroundFRAGMENTATION, PROTOSTELLAR WINDS, AND STAR FORMATION*
Silk, J. I. (1982) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1982.tb43402.x · Cited by 2
Self-citationAdiabatic Theories of Galaxy Formation and Pancakes
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Self-citationGalaxy Formation: Confrontation with Observations
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Self-citationCooling Flows and the Formation of Dark Matter
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H i Lyα Emission from a Metal-poor Cool Stream Fueling an Early Dusty Starburst
Hall, K., & Fu, H. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad4601 · Cited by 1
“Above a mass threshold of M shock ( ∼ 10 12 M ⊙ ), analytical and numerical models postulated that the inflow of gas develop shocks in the vicinity of the virial radius of the halo, heating the gas to the virial temperature ( T vir ≳ 10 6 K) (e.g., Rees & Ostriker 1977; Silk 1977; White & Rees 1978; Birnboim & Dekel 2…”
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EVRARD, A. E. (1993) · Astrophysics and space science library · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1882-8_4 · Cited by 1
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Ostriker, J. P. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2995-1_45 · Cited by 1
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Norman, C. A., & Silk, J. I. (1984) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-7245-2_16 · Cited by 1
Self-citationTowards a Theory of Galaxy Formation
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“Many astrophysicists have built the theoretical models concentrated on the dissociation of H2 by the LW photons because they have investigated the second epoch of star formation after the first stars have been formed in metal-free molecular cloud (e.g., Silk 1977; Nishi & Tashiro 2000).”
BackgroundLilly, S. J. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-45334-2_1 · Cited by 1
The Origin of Globular Clusters
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Stellar He Production in a Cold Universe?
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Modeling the High‐z Universe: Probing Galaxy Formation
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“With respe t to the evolution of baryoni physi swithin su h evolving haloes early work by (Binney 1977, Silk 1977, Rees &Ostriker 1977) laid out the ground work.”
BackgroundGalaxy Formation and Cooling Flows
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Late Evolution of Adiabatic Fluctuations
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Explosive scenario of the origin of population II stars
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“This gas likely stays in a hot, diffuse, gaseous form and envelopes the central, optically visible part of the galaxy (Rees & Ostriker 1977; Silk 1977).”
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Zhu, W., & Feng, L. (2013) · Zhongguo kexue. Wulixue Lixue Tianwenxue · doi:10.1360/132013-33
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“The process of galaxy formation occurs when the primordial gas in overdense regions of the matter distribution cools and collapses to form stars (Hoyle 1953 [1]; Rees & Ostriker 1977 [2]; Silk 1977 [3]; Binney 1977 [4]).”
BackgroundModeling the high-z universe: probing galaxy formation
Khochfar, S. (2009) · Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics
Fragmentation in Rotating Isothermal Protostellar Clouds
Bodenheimer, P. H., Tohline, J. E., & Black, D. C. (1980) · International Astronomical Union Colloquium · doi:10.1017/s0252921100081616
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BackgroundDissipation and the Formation of Galaxies
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Did the Bulge Form All at Once?
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A Single Fragmentation Law? Theoretical and Observational Evidence
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A Halo-based Empirical Model for the Atomic Hydrogen Content
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“As halos develop, they accrete gas from surroundings, which subsequently cools and condenses at their centers, eventually forming galaxies [96, 105, 123, 36].”
Cosmological RHD simulations of early galaxy formation
Rosdahl, J. (2012) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/22ac979cz5e59z4ac1zb7d1z9235b056e0bd
Circum galactic medium emission : from modeling to detection by a dedicated UV space mission
Quiret, S. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/89ddc083z4553z4b8cz8da2z124177ec991e
Metadata
- Authors
- Silk, J.
- Corresponding author
- Silk, J.
- ORCID
- Silk, J.
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 1977-02
- Volume
- 211
- Pages
- 638
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2010419548
- Semantic Scholar
- 2bcefe5b5fe76c98d49f4a6f7ed17cfd3ad2c452
- Cited by
- 510
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 17
- FWCI
- 8.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Keywords
- galaxy formation, ionized gas clouds, cooling, molecular hydrogen cooling, binding energy, spheroidal galaxies, primordial gas clouds, second-generation stars, stellar mass distribution
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