Cited by 672Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, PhenomenaStellar, planetary, and galactic studiesAstrophysics and Star Formation Studies

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Synthetic properties of starburst galaxies

Leitherer, Claus, Heckman, Timothy M.·1995·The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series

DOI 10.1086/192112

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Abstract

We present the results of an extensive grid of evolutionary synthesis models for populations of massive stars. The parameter space has been chosen to correspond to conditions typically found in objects like giant H II regions, H II galaxies, blue compact dwarf galaxies, nuclear starbursts, and infrared luminous starburst galaxies. The models are based on the most up-to-date input physics for the theory of stellar atmospheres, stellar winds, and stellar evolution. Observable properties of a population of stars are computed for the two limiting cases of an instantaneous burst and a constant star- formation rate over a time interval of 3 x 10^8^ yr. We also investigate the effects of starformation histories which are intermediate between those two extreme cases. Three choices of the initial mass functions are studied: a Salpeter and a Miller-Scalo type IMF with upper mass limits of 100 M_sun_, and a Salpeter IMF truncated at 30 M_sun_. Metallicities of 0.1 Z_sun_, 0.25 Z_sun_, Z_sun_, and 2 Z_sun_ are considered. The model predictions include the numbers of hot stars, supernova rates, colors in the UBVRIJHKL passbands, slopes of the ultraviolet continuum observable by IUE, HST, and HUT, equivalent widths of hydrogen recombination lines, ionizing fluxes shortward of the H^0^, He^0^, and He^+^ ionization edges, the Lyman discontinuity, and mass- and energy- deposition rates due to stellar winds and supernovae. We discuss the contamination of the stellar ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared continuum by nebular emission. It is found that under typical starburst conditions the nebular continuum is not negligible. Depending on the wavelength, addition of the nebular continuum leads to significantly redder or bluer broadband colors than obtained from a pure stellar continuum. A population of massive stars is not only important in terms of its output of radiation but also via its deposition of mechanical energy. The output of radiative and mechanical luminosity is compared at various starburst epochs. In a supernova dominated instantaneous starburst, the mechanical luminosity can be as large as almost 10% of the total radiative luminosity. This occurs when most massive O stars have disappeared, and the synthetic spectrum in the optical and near- ultraviolet is dominated by B and A stars. During this epoch, the output of ionizing radiation below 912 A becomes very small, as indicated by a very large Lyman discontinuity and a very small ratio of ionizing over mechanical luminosity. We discuss the relevance of these results for the interpretation of starburst galaxies, active galactic nuclei, and the energetics of the interstellar medium.

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Items 501–600 of 671

Physical properties of young stellar populations in 24 starburst galaxies observed with FUSE*
Pellerin, A., & Robert, C. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12250.x · Cited by 15
“…been developed to work with data at various wavelength ranges, especially during the last decade (e.g. Robert, Leitherer & Heckman 1993; Worthey et al. 1994; Leitherer & Heckman 1995; Vazdekis 1999; Leitherer et al. 1999; Mollá & Garćıa-Vargas 2000; Robert et al. 2003; Bruzual & Charlot 2003).”
Background
POX 4 and Tol 35: Two Peculiar Wolf-Rayet Dwarf Galaxies
Méndez, D. I., & Esteban, C. (1999) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/301117 · Cited by 15
“The ages obtained from the U[B colors and the same models by Leitherer & Heckman (1995) are consistent with the W (Ha) ones within 1 Myr for both galaxies (see Fig.”
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“During the phase where O stars are present, an ionizing star cluster with a total mass of 105 M⊙ (typically the mass of a globular cluster, Aguilar et al. 1988) produces about 1051 – 1052 ionizing photons per second, according to stellar population synthesis models (Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
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“The total Lyman continuum photon rate for a given region can be derived from the Hα luminosity (e.g. Leitherer & Heckman 1995): N(Lyc) = 7.35× 1011L(Hα) = 2.71× 1051s−1 Taking into account that the number of Lyman continuum photons per unit mass of the ionising population decreases with age, and…”
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“(3) The total number of ionizing photons for a given region has been derived from the Hα luminosities (Leitherer & Heckman 1995): Q(H0) = 7.35 × 1011 L(Hα).”
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Puxley, P. J., & Brand, P. W. J. L. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/306983 · Cited by 14
“Comparison with Models : Radiative Properties Leitherer et al. (1999) have constructed an extensive set of evolutionary synthesis models (hereafter referred to as Starburst99) for active star formation regions, updating the earlier work by Leitherer & Heckman (1995).”
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“Using f λ from the BPASS SED, we integrate up to 912 ˚A to calculate the ionizing photon production: Then, using Equation 9 in Leitherer & Heckman (1995), we calculate L H α per M ⊙ yr − 1 of star formation: The resulting conversion factors are listed in Table 2 and are shown in Figure 2, which…”
Little impact of mergers and galaxy morphology on the production and escape of ionizing photons in the early Universe
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Method
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Method
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SBS 1150+599A: An extremely oxygen-poor planetary nebula in\nthe Galactic halo?
Tovmassian, G. H., Stasińska, G., Chavushyan, V., et al. (2001) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20010220/pdf · Cited by 12
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“…limit of 30 and a metal-M _licity of 0.25 On the other hand, if we adopt a SalpeterZ _ .6 IMF with an upper limit of 100 as in the models ofM _ , Leitherer & Heckman (1995), the value of the age for the B[V color remains the same, but it increases slightly if we use the W (Ha) (about 6] 106 yr).”
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“…and applied to study extragalactic star clusters based on photometry in multiple passbands, including Bruzual & Charlot (1993); Worthey (1994); Leitherer & Heckman (1995); Fioc & Rocca-Volmerange ⋆ E-mail: zfan@bao.ac.cn † E-mail: grijs@pku.edu.cn (1997); Maraston (1998); Vazdekis (1999);…”
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“Given that the Hα emission traces recent star formation, the EW(Hα) can be used to estimate the ages of these events (e.g., Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
Background
Detailed Photometric Study of the Merging Group of Galaxies HCG 95
Iglésias-Páramo, J., & Vı́lchez, J. M. (1998) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/300333 · Cited by 10
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Self-citation
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“Starburst99 (Leitherer et al. 1992; Leitherer & Heckman 1995; Leitherer et al. 1999; Vázquez & Leitherer 2005) is the population synthesis code we selected to simulate the properties of the stellar winds and SNe produced by stellar populations with various characteristics.”
Method
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Method
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BackgroundSelf-citation
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ISO observations of the Wolf-Rayet galaxies NGC 5430, NGC 6764, Mrk 309 and VII Zw 19
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Galaxies and large scale structure at high redshifts
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Method
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BackgroundSelf-citation
The Peculiar System ESO 244−G012
Agüero, E. L., Paolantonio, S., & Günthardt, G. (2000) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.1086/301172 · Cited by 6
“…ages forA , the bursts of star formation in their interiors are 7.9 ] 106 and 9.7 ] 106 yr according to the standard model for an instantaneous burst with metallicities of 1 and 0.6 (valueZ _interpolated between the two very similar curves corresponding to 1 and 0.25 Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
MethodInfluential
Understanding star formation and feedback in small galaxies
Cairós, L. M., & González-Pérez, J. N. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936174 · Cited by 6
“Hence, the star clusters A95, page 10 of 14 generating the H ii regions in the central parts of Mrk 900 are younger than 10 Myr.”
BackgroundInfluential
Low and high velocity clouds produced by young stellar clusters
Rodríguez-González, A., Raga, A. C., & Cantó, J. (2009) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200911693 · Cited by 6
“This timescale coincides with the lifetime of the stellar population of a SSC (Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
Photoionization and evolutionary synthesis models for giant H ii regions
Stasińska, G. (2000) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/s1387-6473(00)00060-9 · Cited by 6
The quest for hot gas in the halo of NGC 1511
Dahlem, M., Ehle, M., Jansen, F., et al. (2003) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Lyman Continuum Leakers at z > 3 in the GOODS-S Field: Starburst or Not?
Zhu, S., Yuan, F.-T., Jiang, C., et al. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad7b18 · Cited by 5
“Since nebular continuum emission is significantly red-der than the continuum emission from young and low-metallicity stars (e.g., Leitherer & Heckman 1995), β can also reflect the strength of nebular emission in a galaxy.”
Background
Diagnostics of active galaxies
Loenen, A. F., Baan, W. A., & Spaans, M. (2006) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065778 · Cited by 5
“Detailed information on the computational techniques can be found in Leitherer et al. (1992) and Leitherer & Heckman (1995).”
BackgroundMethod
Diagnostics of active galaxies: I. Modeling the infrared properties of dusty cores of starburst galaxiesPreprint
Loenen, A. F., Baan, W. A., & Spaans, M. (2006) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.astro-ph/0607615 · Cited by 5
“Detailed information on the computational techniques can be found in Leitherer et al. (1992) and Leitherer & Heckman (1995).”
BackgroundMethod
Dissecting the star formation history of starburst galaxies: the case of NGC 7673
Pasquali, A., & Castangia, P. (2008) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.12887.x · Cited by 5
“For a given IMF, the number N(H0) of ionizing photons emitted per second at λ 912 Å critically depends on the mass and age of the stars and less significantly on their metallicity (Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
BackgroundInfluential
Low Luminosity Galaxies
Davies, J. I., Sabatini, S., & Roberts, S. (2004) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia · doi:10.1071/as04046 · Cited by 5
New High-Redshift Galaxies at z = 5.8–6.5 in the Subaru Deep Field
Shioya, Y., Taniguchi, Y., Ajiki, M., et al. (2005) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/pasj/57.4.569 · Cited by 5
“…emission lines, we calculate emission-line fluxes using the formula of L(Hβ)(ergs s−1) = 4.76× 10−13NLyc, where NLyc is the ionizing photon production rate (Leitherer & Heckman 1995), and the table of relative luminosity to Hβ luminosity in PEGASE (Fioc & RoccaVolmerange 1997).”
MethodInfluential
Metals from star-forming dwarfs: retention or ejection?
Kunth, D., Legrand, F., Tenorio‐Tagle, G., et al. (2002) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1023/a:1019579308540 · Cited by 5
Three-dimensional modeling of ionized gas
Weber, J. A., Pauldrach, A. W. A., & Hoffmann, T. L. (2015) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201424976 · Cited by 4
“By comparing theoretical population synthesis models with observational results, it is further possible to reconstruct the physical properties and the recent evolution of these objects (Leitherer & Heckman 1995, Leitherer et al. 1999, Leitherer et al. 2010).”
Result
Hierarchical Bayesian approach for estimating physical properties in nearby galaxies: Age Maps (Paper II)
Sánchez-Gil, M. C., Alfaro, E. J., Cerviño, M., Pérez, E., Bland‐Hawthorn, J., & Jones, D. H. P. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty3106 · Cited by 4
NGST: Seeing the First Stars and Galaxies Form
Stockman, H. S., & Mather, J. (1999) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4665-4_144 · Cited by 4
The Nuclear Stellar Cluster in NGC 1068
Thatte, N., Genzel, R., Kroker, H., Krabbe, A., Tacconi‐Garman, L. E., Maiolino, R., & Tecza, M. (1997) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1023/a:1000593931795 · Cited by 4
Photometric Properties of Kiso Ultraviolet‐Excess Galaxies in the Lynx–Ursa Major Region
Takeuchi, T. T., Tomita, A., Nakanishi, K., et al. (1999) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1086/313203 · Cited by 4
“Though we should keep in mind that the galaxy color is sensitive to the burst-mass fraction (BAS90) and metallicity of the gas (Leitherer & Heckman 1995), both of which are rather uncertain, the important fact is that most of our sample KUGs have a young yr) stellar component within([107h8 their…”
Background
Circumnuclear starbursts in barred galaxies
Knapen, J. H. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/bfb0101982 · Cited by 4
“We note, however, that one expects a region of massive SF to become prominent in K after some 10 7 yrs, when the massive stars reach the supergiant phase in their evolution (e.g. Leitherer & Heckman 1995).”
Background
Self-consistent population spectral synthesis with FADO - I. The importance of nebular emission in modelling star-forming galaxiesPreprint
Cardoso, L. S. M., Gomes, J. M., & Papaderos, P. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1901.10776 · Cited by 4
The AURORA Survey: Ionizing Photon Production Efficiency with Minimal Nebular Dust Attenuation Systematics
Pahl, A. J., Shapley, A. E., Reddy, N. A., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae1cab · Cited by 3
“…UV luminosity density: Assuming Case B recombination, a gas temperature of 10 , 000K, and an electron density of 100 cm − 3 , ˙ n ion can be related to the intrinsic L H α ,int following the prescription of Leitherer & Heckman (1995): This relation is insensitive to stellar population assumptions.”
Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV MaStar: Quantification and Abatement of Interstellar Absorption in the Largest Empirical Stellar Spectral Library
Rubin, K. H. R., Westfall, K. B., Maraston, C., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad8eb6 · Cited by 3
EELG1002: A Record-breaking [O iii ]+H β EW ∼ 3700 Å Galaxy at z ∼ 0.8—Analog of Early Galaxies?
Khostovan, A. A., Kartaltepe, J. S., Brinch, M., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae0330 · Cited by 3
Physical properties of circumnuclear ionizing clusters – I. NGC 7742
Zamora, S., & Díaz, Á. I. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad2090 · Cited by 3
Understanding star formation and feedback in small galaxies
Cairós, L. M., & González-Pérez, J. N. (2020) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936174/pdf · Cited by 3
The stellar population and the evolutionary state of HII regions and starburst galaxies
Delgado, R. M. G. (2000) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/s1387-6473(00)00041-5 · Cited by 3
Fundamental Aspects of Star Formation in Galaxies
Kennicutt, R. C. (1998) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-29742-1_1 · Cited by 3
MUSE observations of the blue compact dwarf galaxy Haro 14
Cairós, L. M., González-Pérez, J. N., Weilbacher, P. M., & Sainz, R. M. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202140396 · Cited by 2
Optical Multi-Band Analyses of Blue Compact Dwarf Galaxies
Noeske, K. G., Cairós, L. M., Papaderos, P., et al. (2001) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1023/a:1017529324764 · Cited by 3
THE ROLE OF STARS IN THE ENERGETICS OF LINERsPreprint
Maoz, D. (1998) · Cited by 3
Effective model for line intensity mapping: Auto- and cross-power spectra in the cosmic dawn and reionization
Libanore, S., Muñoz, J. B., & Kovetz, E. D. (2025) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/xq1r-zh51 · Cited by 2
REBELS-IFU: Spatially Resolved Ionizing Photon Production Efficiencies of 12 Bright Galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization
Komarova, L., Stefanon, M., Laza-Ramos, A., et al. (2026) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae474f · Cited by 2
Back to basics: Little Red Dots as galaxies and dust-obscured AGNs in a synthetic NIRCam sky simulated with L-Galaxies BH
Herrero-Carrión, D., Spinoso, D., Izquierdo–Villalba, D., et al. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag478 · Cited by 2
MOSEL survey: Unwrapping the Epoch of Reionisation through mimic galaxies at Cosmic Noon
Jaiswar, R., Gupta, A., da Cunha, E., et al. (2024) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia · doi:10.1017/pasa.2024.37 · Cited by 2
CLUES. III. Do User Choices Impact the Results of SED Fitting? Tests of “Off-the-shelf” Stellar Population and Dust Extinction Models in the CLUES Sample
Mizener, A., Calzetti, D., Adamo, A., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ade391 · Cited by 2
The role of stars in the energetics of LINERs
Maoz, D. (1999) · Advances in Space Research · doi:10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00215-x · Cited by 2
Binary interactions on the calibrations of star formation rate
Zhang, F., Li, L., Zhang, Y., et al. (2012) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.20349.x · Cited by 2
“Using the models of Leitherer & Heckman (1995) for continuous bursts of age 10-100Myr and the S55 IMF with the lower and upper mass limits Ml = 0.1 and Mu = 100M⊙, K98 has presented the conversion factor between SFRFIR and LFIR: FFIR = 4.5× 10 −44 M⊙ yr −1/erg s−1.”
MethodInfluential

Authors: Leitherer, C., & Heckman, T. M.
Affiliations: Space Telescope Science Institute (US)
Johns Hopkins University (US)
ORCID: Leitherer, Claus
Heckman, Timothy M.
Venue: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
Publisher: American Astronomical Society
Published: 1995-01
Volume: 96
Pages: 9
ISSN: 0067-0049 (ISSN-L)
1538-4365
DOI: 10.1086/192112
OpenAlex: W2063361568
Cited by: 672
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 24
Type: conference abstract
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies
Keywords: starburst galaxies, massive star populations, stellar population synthesis, H II regions, blue compact dwarf galaxies, nuclear starburst, luminous infrared galaxies, star formation history, initial mass function, stellar winds, supernova feedback, ionizing flux, mechanical luminosity, stellar colors, supernova rate

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