The DOI matches its Crossref record; 4 of the 4 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 12 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Western Missionaries in Modern China: From Ministers of Foreign Teachings to Agents of Imperialism?
Open accessAbstract
Western missionaries working for the proselytization of Christianity during the early twentieth century were predominantly representatives of a new worldview that put scientific objectives on a par with the aim of converting the Chinese to their faith. Conventional wisdom stipulates that the 1920s brought about a sea change in public attitudes, transforming the missionaries’ perceived role in China, as well as in the colonized world, into “agents of imperialism.” This article posits that this may well have been the case within the ranks of a radicalizing and ideologically reorienting intellectual elite. However, the majority of the population within the Republic of China held a variety of views, from deep-rooted suspicion (“Western clerics as alien magicians”) to high esteem (“clerics as medical experts”). The May Fourth Movement’s axiom of a monolithic, “patriotic,” and “scientific” opposition to the Western missionaries thus needs to be replaced by a more nuanced interpretation.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The article argues that Western missionaries in late imperial and Republican China were often opposed by Qing authorities less as agents of foreign imperialism than as perceived threats to Confucian orthopraxy, public morality, and anti-heresy law. It contends that while nationalist elites later cast missionaries as imperialist intruders, many ordinary Chinese valued missionary medicine, schooling, and healing, so the missionary legacy is best understood through local perceptions rather than a single teleological narrative.
Key findings
- Qing objections to Christianity were concrete: missionaries were accused of endangering public morality, violating anti-heresy legislation, aiding potential rebels, and competing with indigenous healers and sectarian movements; the state’s core condemnation was framed around “wizardry” rather than imperialism until the late nineteenth century.
- After the 1724 Yongzheng prohibition on unauthorized proselytization, Christianity shifted from urban centers to the rural periphery, where nonordained local clerics sustained communities; Zhili and the North China Plain absorbed many Christian refugees during Qianlong’s reign.
- Medical missionary activity was a major point of contact and conflict: in 1806 Sichuan missionaries reported nearly 7,000 baptisms of foundlings, compared with 1,371 adult christenings and 1,760 infant christenings; Catholic healing led to bans on selling medicines, while later medical missionaries used modern drugs and surgery, and even distributed free heroin injection kits to combat opium smoking.
- In the early twentieth century, missionary schools and hospitals attracted both affluent and poor Chinese despite anti-imperialist and anti-Christian movements; elites often condemned missionaries as culturally incompatible, but popular choices frequently favored the effective education and health care they provided.
Methods
- Qualitative historical study drawing on Qing memorials and edicts, Vatican missionary archives, missionary correspondence, periodicals, pictorial press, and secondary scholarship.
- Interpretive local-history analysis comparing official, missionary, elite, and popular perceptions across the late imperial and Republican periods.
Limitations
- The article does not include a formal limitations section; stated limitations are not stated in the paper.
- Evident from the text: the source base is heavily mediated by official Qing documents and missionary archives, which may overrepresent state and missionary perspectives.
- Evident from the text: claims about majority popular trust and local reception are broad and not supported by systematic sampling or quantification, and the wide chronological and geographic scope means coverage is uneven and often anecdotal.
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Claims the paper makes
38 Own interpretation · 29 No basis given · 11 Sources not found · 2 Not checked yet · 1 No full text of the sources
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Most references to”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“During the long reign of the Qianlong 乾隆 emperor (Manchu: Abkai Wehiyehe/弘曆 Hvng Li, 1735-96), Zhili province, surrounding the capital, absorbed particularly many Christian refugees.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“However, the whole of the North China Plain, from Shaanxi in the West to Shandong by the Yellow Sea, provided shelter for Christians looking for less state interference.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“Fully aware of the dubious nature of such pharmaceutical commerce, the state reiterated its prohibition on the sale of medicines on repeated occasions.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
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In the paper
“An edict of the year 1805 forbade”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [38]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, the Catholic missionaries were so successful in their medical arts that they were prohibited from selling medications by both the Holy See and the Qing state.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
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In the paper
“For the year 1806 alone, the missionaries in the province of Sichuan reported nearly 7,000 baptisms of foundlings, as opposed to 1,371 adult christenings and 1,760 christenings of infants.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27]
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the early twentieth-century public would turn toward the most effective schooling and health care-often provided by missionary centers.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“The same can be said about the attitude toward Westerners in official roles, which can be easily gleaned from the popular press.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [48]
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In the paper
“Eager to underline the scientific credentials of the new pills, the Shanghai press revealed the chemical composition of the most popular brands.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
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In the paper
“the flow of rural migrants into the nascent industrial centers and treaty ports reduced the reliance on traditional networks of social authority, but also affected financial security and thus the provision of health care.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“the Self-Strengthening (ziqiang 自強) movement of the preceding three decades had produced very uneven economic growth, with large segments of the rural population living in conditions of poverty.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“The momentous events of the year 1900, the culmination of Boxer or Yihetuan 義和團 unrest, would come as a reminder that Qing China was all but built on stable foundations.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“When refusing to apostatize by walking over a crucifix, Salvetti was kept in solitary confinement, albeit without undue force.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As part of a widespread crackdown against heretical movements in the year 1811, Qing officials confiscated medications as well as medical instruments imported during the Kangxi years, which had facilitated the medical work of the missionaries for almost one hundred years.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] source
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In the paper
“From the middle of the nineteenth century, however, an increasing number of missionaries were scientifically trained and well-equipped medics, who enjoyed the combined appeal of being men of learning as well as of healing powers.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“And there, in remote locations, many of which in mountains or marshes, and often in the border zones between Han Chinese and other ethnic territories, China's Christian communities quietly thrived and multiplied.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“The accusations leveled against Christian missionaries during the nineteenth century manifested themselves in rumors of immoral acts with children, and the harvesting of foundlings-specifically their eyes-for alchemical purposes.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Imperial officials would seize on the distribution of medical drugs as examples of nefarious activity, relying on the general public to act as informers.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
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In the paper
“As the Jiaqing emperor proclaimed on August 21, 1805, the Cantonese authorities were to take adequate measures to effectively control all foreigners, which may lead to the extermination of the (Christian) evil.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [17]
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In the paper
“However, any major”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“Christian China's”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [14]
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In the paper
“Rather than becoming extinct, Christianity's center of gravity in China shifted from the metropoles to the rural periphery.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“Only every now and then during the latter eighteenth century did European missionaries visit these Christian shelters, though these were exceptional occasions for these otherwise priestless, self-administering communities.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
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In the paper
“From early Confucian admonitions against undue familiarity with the spirits to Tang-era polemics against excessive devotion to Buddhism, agnostic reservations concerning religious practice have been a staple feature of Chinese intellectual life.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
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In the paper
“While the very first Republican administration had attempted in vain to force mission schools to register as early as in 1913”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“Although Western missionaries had played a prominent role in the administration of pharmaceutical substances from the very beginnings, the last two decades of the nineteenth century and the first two of the twentieth saw a rapid proliferation of Western practitioners with a Christian calling.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
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In the paper
“While morphine injection had already been widespread in much of eastern China, 62 consumers gradually replaced the expensive opiates with narcotic pills.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [62]
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In the paper
“Skepticism against clerics of any religious orientation in China can be found in the oldest texts known to us.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
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In the paper
“This applied to both their countries of origin (in Europe and North America) as well as to those visited in missionary function.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
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In the paper
“However, the class divides that became visible at missionary schools led to social frictions, calls for political change, and, eventually, calls for a withdrawal of the Western missionary presence in China.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“While mission schools and colleges increasingly played host to anti-Western demonstrations, they remained highly sought-after as places of international learning and modern scientific progress.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
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In the paper
“Anglo-American and French colleges reacted by switching their focus onto scientific subjects and their medium to Chinese.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The Scotsman William Milne (1785-1822), whose journey mirrored that of Morrison, would in due course open the first Chinese printing press in Malacca.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Cai Yuanpei 蔡元培 (1868-1940) imposed the commitment to the secular Republic as the sole criterion for operating higher educational facilities.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In ideological terms, it was the Western missionaries' resemblance to the leaders of China's indigenous”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: The archival and missionary sources used by the paper accurately reflect the conditions and perceptions of the local population.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The argument the present article wishes to pursue is that in most cases where the Qing authorities or local scholar officials objected to the presence of Christian missionaries from the West, it was because of the perceived menace posed by the religious practices of Christianity-allegedly they endangered public morality, infringed upon anti-heresy legislation, and aided potential anti-Qing rebels.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The archival and missionary sources used by the paper accurately reflect the conditions and perceptions of the local population.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Christianity proved no exception to this observation.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas the Qing state emphasized control, both religious leaders and medical healers were highly mobile, crossing administrative boundaries at will, thus making any effective imperial control nigh impossible.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But perhaps more corrosive than the late Qing empire's economic fragility were the degree of official corruption exhibited and the inability of the local defense forces to ward off attacking bandits and pirates.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CHANGING PARAMETERS: UPRISINGS, SCIENCE, AND REVOLUTION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Descriptions of exorcisms are relatively rare but nevertheless illustrate how powerful a conversion tool they could be.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The accusations leveled against the Christian missionaries were concrete in nature and often in response to perceived infringements of (Confucian) orthopraxy.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The archival and missionary sources used by the paper accurately reflect the conditions and perceptions of the local population.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The missionaries were caught between the desire to”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > BENEDICTIONS, CURSES, AND PHYSICAL HEALING
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only a tiny minority by the 1930s escaped this pattern, partaking in the objective advantages of the missionary presence.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it was the opinion of the literary elite that would matter disproportionally, since it had always been the intellectuals' historical prerogative to publish on political views and to interpret the events of the past.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where the Marxian Chinese nationalist would see the long arm of European imperialism at play, most commoners were more concerned with the practical advantages of having a mission station in the immediate vicinity.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The intellectual assault against the spirits of imperial China thus bequeathed science with the ultimate authority over life and death, and the new medical elite became the high priesthood of the scientific age.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Highly addictive and medically harmful, the new pills had clearly become more dangerous than the old smoking culture-although their panache of modernity outweighed any public health concerns.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The perception of scientific medicine as omnipotent savior was of course not confined to China, 59 but the sheer pace at which material and scientific change was being transmitted via the Treaty Ports added to the sensation of universal awe that modern medicine brought along.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [59]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The medical missionaries of the late nineteenth century were thus not merely harbingers of a new era in scientific medicine but also spiritual competitors.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The material impulses that had irritated, indeed shocked, the Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century were well and truly alive in the twentieth century.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“obvious to Christian Westerners, but not to the typical reader of the Qingdai huabao.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The priest depicted in this late imperial pictorial newspaper probably counts among the former.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To conclude the answer, the latter were not really interested in the teachings of Christianity either, which in its complexity went well beyond the horizon of an uneducated contemporary.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any binding answer to the question contained in the title of this study thus needs to distinguish between differences in perception between the intellectual elite and the other layers of Chinese society-both during the Qing period and in the Republic.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Literary action against Christianity during the late Ming period (early seventeenth century) thus fits well into this pattern-a phenomenon that would accompany Christian clerics through the entire late imperial period and also the twentieth century.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intended to illustrate the eccentric nature of Western missionaries to a curious urban readership, this illustration alludes to the proselytization efforts of Saint Francis of Assisi”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, both Jesuits and their confrères from the mendicant orders would encounter opposition that was motivated partly by a refusal to contemplate radical change, partly by sheer envy.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > CONCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This aspect of the Christian missions resulted in a dialogue between Christians, Daoists, and Buddhists, precisely because of the crucial relevance of medical knowledge in society at large.”
§ MISSIONARIES-FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES OF ALIEN CREEDS? > TRANSFORMATIONS: SCIENCE AS GOD
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The archival and missionary sources used by the paper accurately reflect the conditions and perceptions of the local population.
“the safest method of avoiding a teleological interpretation of the missionary involvement in modern China is to interrogate the relevant sources that reveal the conditions and perceptions of the local population.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The popular press reliably reflects mainstream public attitudes.
“which can be easily gleaned from the popular press.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The missionaries came to China primarily to spread Christianity.
“But it was this very aim that had brought the missionaries to China in the first place”
Citations
Cites
KUHN, P. A. (1990) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674039773 · Cited by 160
Shahar, M. (1998) · Harvard University Asia Center eBooks · doi:10.1163/9781684170302 · Cited by 21
The influence of 'Yangsheng' culture on early Chinese medicine.
Lo, V. H. (1998) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 2
Catholic Mission Stations in Northern China: Centers of Stability and Protection in Troubled Times
Tiedemann, R. G. (2018) · The Church as Safe Haven · doi:10.1163/9789004383722_012 · Cited by 1
Research works printed but not linked: 52
- Zheng Wang, 2012, Never Forget National Humiliation: Historical Memory in Chinese Politics and Foreign Relations (New York: Columbia University Press
- Dikötter Frank, 1992, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London: Hurst
- 1930, Heaven
- 曹文埴 Cao Wenzhi, the First Historical Archives 中國第一 歷史檔案館 (henceforth: FHA)
- For, as recorded in a memorial by the chief magistrate for the capital area (shunyin 順尹) Jiang Bing 蔣炳, dated Qianlong year 11 / 1746. "Acknowledged testimony concerning Fu Zuolin
- 王之春 Wang Zhichun, 1989, Qingchao rouyuan ji 清朝柔遠記 [An account of the Qing dynasty welcoming strangers] (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju
- See, 1814, for instance, the edict of JQ 19/11 (December
- Congregationis de Propaganda Archivum Sacrae, 1817, Scritture Originali della Congregazione Particolare (SOCP), 9
- Guiot Léonide, 1892, La mission du Su-tchuen au XVIIIme siècle: Vie et apostolat de Mgr Pottier (Paris: Téqui
- Bontinck François, 1962, La Iutte autour de la liturgie chinoise aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Louvain: Université Lovanium de Léopoldville
- Tamburello Adolfo, 1995, La Missione Cattolica in Cina tra i secoli XVII-XVIII, ed. F. D'Arelli and A. Tamburello
- 馬釗 Ma Zhao, 1999, Shilun Qianlong shiqi (1736-1796) chajin tianzhujiao shijian
- Laamann Lars Peter, The Church and the Book, ed. R. N. Swanson, Studies in Church History, 38
- Latourette John Kenneth, 1937, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols. (New York: Harper & Brothers
- 1806, Letter by Denis Chaumont (London) to Boiret
- Amendments, 1817, Whether Christianity was included is unclear, since it was hardly "new, 12
- Calcuttan Yang Chun, Malin
- The, 1999, Nourishing Life
- The, 2008, Chinese
- 1962, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties]
- 程歗 Cheng Xiao, Wanqing xiangshehui de yangjiaoguan
- Margiotti Fortunato, 1958, Il cattolicismo nello Shansi dalle origini al 1738 [Catholicism in Shanxi, from the origins until 1738] (Rome: Edizioni Sinica Franciscana
- Brown Peter, 1990, Christentum und antike
- Kehl Alois, Martin and Quint, Christentum und antike
- 趙仲明 Zhao Zhongming, 1993, wushu, mijing: Zhongguo wushu wenhua zhuizong 巫術、巫師、秘境- 中國巫術文化追蹤 [Shamans, sorcery, forbidden spaces: Traces of China's culture of sorcery] (Kunming: Yunnan Daxue Chubanshe
- An, seditious door scrolls
- Fang Weidian 方維甸 Memorial, de Groot, Sectarianism and Religious Persecution, 406, 99
- Jiaqing, Eight Trigrams
- 秦寶琦 Qin Baoqi, 1993, Zhongguo dixia shehui: Qingqianqi mimishehui juan 中國地下社會:清前期秘密社會卷 [China's underground societies: The secret societies of the Early Qing Period] (Beijing: Xueyuan chubanshe
- Shek, Religion and Society
- Edict, 1817, Indie Orientali)
- Malek Roman, 2003, Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 2, 2
- APF, 1806, Indie Orientali/Cina, 11, 241
- 1806, Luigi da Signa (Shanxi)
- Letter, 1806, Indie Orientali
- Rousset Léon, 1886, A travers la Chine (Paris: Hachette
- Feuchtwang Stephan, 1977, The City in Late Imperial China, ed. G. William Skinner
- Barrett Howard, 1913, Our Medical Missions (London: Wesleyan Mission House
- 任雲仙 Ren Yunxian, 2010, Qingmo baokan pinglun yu Zhongguo waijiao guannian jindaihua 清末報刊評論與中國外交觀念近代化 [The late-Qing media discourse and the modernization of China's concept of foreign relations] (Beijing: People's Press
- Yip, 1980, Nationalism and Chinese Students: The Anti-Christian Movement of 1922-27 (Bellingham: Western Washington University Press
- 張欽士 Zhang Qinshi, 1927, Guonei jishinianlai zhi zongjiao sichao 國內幾十年來之宗教思潮 [Religious trends in China in recent decades] (Beijing: Yenching School of Chinese Studies
- Stauffer Milton Theobald, 1922, The Christian Occupation of China (Shanghai: China Continuation Committee
- Hunter William C., 1885, Trench & Co., 139
- Segers Arthur, 1932, La Chine: Le peuple, sa vie cotidienne et ses cérémonies (Antwerp: Editions "De Sikkel
- Wieger Léon, 1921, Chine moderne
- Michie Alexander, 1891, Missionaries in China (London: Edward Stanford
- Nevius John Livingstone, 1897, Being an Inductive Study of Phenomena of Our Own Times
- Zhou Zuoren, 1930, Qiming 豈明), "Riben xinjiu yixuede xingfei, 2
- Oral Interesting, accessible via Listening and Viewing Service of the British Library, catalog number C816/04/05-C816/31/02 (recorded on tapes, part of "Oral History of British Science
- Gao Xi, 2014, Medical Transitions in Twentieth-Century China, ed. Bridie Andrews and Mary Brown Bullock
- Andrew Schonebaum The, 2016, Novel Medicine: Healing, Literature, and Popular Knowledge in Early Modern China (Seattle: University of Washington Press
- December 27, 1926.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Accommodation Strategies in Education: Exploring Jesuit Textbook Publication in Modern Shanghai
Mo, W. (2024) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel15040385 · Cited by 1
“Secondly, within the complex context of colonial modernity (Laamann 2020, pp. 106–7), the relationship between Christianity and educational mis‑ sions has significantly influenced Zi‑ka‑wei’s educational landscape.”
BackgroundXiong, L., & Li, P. (2026) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel17010055
“Even during the surge of anti‑Christian movements in the 1920s, some segments of the Chinese population contin‑ ued to support missionary educational and medical projects (Laamann 2021).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Laamann, L. P.
- Affiliations
- University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Laamann, Lars Peter
- ORCID
- Laamann, Lars Peter
- Venue
- History of Religions
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2021-08-01
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 105-125
- ISSN
- 0018-2710 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-6935
- OpenAlex
- W3194989996
- Cited by
- 2
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 2.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- History of Religions (publishedVersion)
- SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- Center for International and Regional Studies (Georgetown University) (acceptedVersion)
- SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Christian Theology and Mission
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Religion and Society Interactions
- Keywords
- Western missionaries, imperialism, May Fourth Movement, Republic of China, 1920s China, science and religion
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-04, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-04 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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