Studies of Mitochondrial and Nonmitochondrial Sources Implicate Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase(s) in the Increased Skeletal Muscle Superoxide Generation That Occurs During Contractile Activity

Abstract

Aims: The sources of cytosolic superoxide in skeletal muscle have not been defined. This study examined the subcellular sites that contribute to cytosolic superoxide in mature single muscle fibers at rest and during contractile activity. Results: Isolated fibers from mouse flexor digitorum brevis loaded with superoxide and nitric-oxide-sensitive fluorescent probes, specific pathway inhibitors and immunolocalization techniques were used to identify subcellular sites contributing to cytosolic superoxide. Treatment with the electron transport chain complex III inhibitor, antimycin A, but not the complex I inhibitor, rotenone, caused increased cytosolic superoxide through release from the mitochondrial intermembrane space via voltage-dependent anion or Bax channels, but inhibition of these channels did not affect contraction-induced increases in cytosolic superoxide. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase inhibitors decreased cytosolic superoxide at rest and following contractions. Protein and mRNA expression of NADPH oxidase subunits was demonstrated in single fibers. NOX2, NOX4, and p22 phox subunits localized to the sarcolemma and transverse tubules; NOX4 was additionally expressed in mitochondria. Regulatory p40 phox and p67 phox proteins were found in the cytoplasm of resting fibers, but following contractions, p40 phox appeared to translocate to the sarcolemma. Innovation: Superoxide and other reactive oxygen species generated by skeletal muscle are important regulators of muscle force production and adaptations to contractions. This study has defined the relative contribution of mitochondrial and cytosolic sources of superoxide within the cytosol of single muscle fibers at rest and during contractions. Conclusion: Muscle mitochondria do not modulate cytosolic superoxide in skeletal muscle but NADPH oxidase is a major contributor both at rest and during contractions. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 18, 603–621.