Demographic gaps or preparation gaps?: The large impact of incoming preparation on performance of students in introductory physics
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The level and pace of introductory physics is often targeted towards the better prepared students; adjusting the course level to better match the preparation of less prepared students might improve their performance while having minimal impact on the learning of the best prepared.
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The head-and-heart elements are especially important for underrepresented students, who often struggle with underpreparation due to economic and educational disparities prior to college, as well as social and psychological barriers such as stereotype threat and microaggressions.
“We posit that these head-and-heart elements are especially important for underrepresented students, who often struggle with underpreparation due to economic and educational disparities prior to college (55), as well as social and psychological barriers such as stereotype threat and microaggressions (56, 57).”
From Active learning narrows achievement gaps for underrepresented students in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and math (2020) · cites this paper as [55]
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Whose ability and growth matter? Gender, mindset and performance in physics
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“In physics, there are also gender disparities in introductory course performance (Kost et al., 2009; Madsen et al., 2013; Sadler & Tai, 2001; Salehi et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMeta-analysis of Gender Performance Gaps in Undergraduate Natural Science Courses
Odom, S., Boso, H., Bowling, S., Brownell, S. E., Cotner, S. H., Creech, C., Drake, A. G., Eddy, S. L., Fagbodun, S., Hebert, S. L., et al. (2021) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.20-11-0260 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…and Sweeder, 2012; Sonnert and Fox, 2012; Lauer et al., 2013; McCullough, 2013; Peters, 2013; Hansen and Birol, 2014; Matz et al., 2017), including studies that control for measures of incoming student ability (Eddy et al., 2014; Eddy and Brownell, 2016; Wright et al., 2016; Salehi et al., 2019b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAttributing equity gaps to course structure in introductory physics
Webb, D., & Paul, C. (2023) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.19.020126 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Again, these grade gaps are comparable to grade gaps published by other US universities [16] in that they are the negative of a fraction of a standard deviation.”
BackgroundInfluentialImportance of math prerequisites for performance in introductory physics
Burkholder, E., Murillo-Gonzalez, G., & Wieman, C. (2021) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.010108 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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“…gaps in incoming preparation, instructors should not assume that students already possess significant content knowledge and should provide greater resources such as supplemental instruction programs or peer-tutoring study groups (Batz et al. , 2015; Salehi et al. , 2019; Meaders et al. , 2020).”
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“Consistent with existing research on incoming knowledge [21], students who do not have prior knowledge of the content in the first week of the course generally performed lower on assessments.”
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ResultGendered performance differences in introductory physics: A study from a large land-grant university
Dew, M., Perry, J. D., Ford, L., Bassichis, W., & Erukhimova, T. (2020) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.010106 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
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BackgroundSelf-citationPercent Grade Scale Amplifies Racial/Ethnic Inequities in Introductory Physics
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What factors impact student performance in introductory physics?
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“For example, Salehi et al. [18] compared different models that predict final exam scores to assess the impact of preparation; Aycock et al. [50] compared models that predict a student ’ s sense of belonging in physics due to different experiences.”
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“edu A substantial body of research has investigated differences in the conceptual performance of groups underrepresented in physics [10, 11]; the majority of this work has examined differences between men and women [12].”
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Exploring the pre-instruction gender gap in physics
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“As found previously in Salehi et al. [8], Model 1 shows that there is a gender gap of 0.22 standard deviations in exam performance indicating that on average women gained 0.22 standard deviation lower exam score compared to men.”
InfluentialSelf-citationValidated diagnostic test for introductory physics course placement
Burkholder, E., Wang, K. D., & Wieman, C. (2021) · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.010127 · Cited by 10
Self-citationPolicy recommendations from causal inference in physics education research
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“In another study, Salehi et al. (2019) aimed to predict final exam grades in physics with sociodemographic variables (such as gender, URM status, FG status) and, as they call it, the level of preparation of the students.”
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Exploring the contributions of self-efficacy and test anxiety to gender differences in assessments
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“That self-efficacy held predictive power here is in contrast to a recent report [29].”
ResultPerceived Inequities in STEM Classes Make Them Feel Competitive
Tatapudy, S., Boukouzis, K., Kayal, I. S., Socko, R., Rajesh, M., & Theobald, E. J. (2025) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.24-02-0084 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In addition, instructors could identify common areas of disparate prior knowledge by using baseline data or early formative assessments (Salehi et al. , 2019a; Salehi et al. , 2020).”
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“Demographics variables created by the nested structure of students’ department and faculty can correlate with the potential difference of students’ performance (Kanim & Cid, 2020; Salehi et al., 2019; Simmons & Heckler, 2020).”
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“…with graduate programs is often apathetic to intentional recruitment of majors and making physics learning environment equitable and inclusive so that diverse groups of students can thrive as majors (Gonsalves et al., 2016; Henderson et al., 2017; Rosa and Mensah, 2016; Salehi et al., 2019).”
Gender-grade-gap zeroed out under a specific intro-physics assessment regime
Webb, D., & Potter, W. H. (2021) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2102.10451 · Cited by 7
“[5] and use the relative grade of a student rather than their absolute grade.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMind the gap: how a large-scale course re-design in economics reduced performance gaps
Miller-Cotto, D., & Schunn, C. D. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1805717 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Large differences in obtained courses grades are regularly seen (for an example, see Salehi et al., 2019 for a half-letter grade difference for URM students observed in introductory physics grades).”
BackgroundEffective Model with Personalized Online Teaching and Learning Science in the Era of ChatGPTPreprint
Hettiarachchilagea, K., & Haldolaarachchige, N. (2023) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2306.09545 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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“In other work [20] we have seen that math SAT scores significantly correlate with a variety of physics specific outcomes, while other SAT scores do not.”
Self-citationInvestigating blended math-science sensemaking with historically marginalized STEM learners
Kaldaras, L., & Wieman, C. (2025) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-025-00565-z · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…preparation that emerges from high school disparities represents a serious barrier that prevents students from backgrounds historically marginalized in STEM from succeeding in STEM at the post-secondary level (Foltz et al., 2014; Green & Sanderson, 2018; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Salehi et al., 2019).”
Self-citationExplaining heterogeneity in student diversity across economics departments
McDougall, A., McKee, D., & Orlov, G. (2024) · The Journal of Economic Education · doi:10.1080/00220485.2024.2406553 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“While achievement gaps can be partially explained by differences in prior preparation, as Salehi et al. (2019) found in gender gaps in STEM courses, there is much evidence that suggests achievement gaps can also be caused by stereotype threat, or the increased psychological pressure put on groups…”
Capece, A., & Richards, A. (2024) · The Physical Educator · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/ad6968 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“A study by Salehi et al found that student performance in calculus-based physics courses is influenced more by incoming preparation than demographic factors [2].”
Pongsophon, P. (2024) · The Physical Educator · doi:10.1088/1361-6552/ad5f6e · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Salehi et al (2019) explored how demographic and preparation gaps affect students’ performance in physics, highlighting the role of engaging pedagogies in mitigating these gaps.”
Supporting First-Generation Student Experiences in Programs and Advising: Lessons from a Pandemic
Nguyen, J., Phuong, A., & Salehi, S. (2024) · NACADA Journal · doi:10.12930/nacada-22-41 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationNieberding, M., & Heckler, A. (2023) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.19.020111 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“demographic biases [23], the ACT math score is well documented to be predictive of introductory physics grades [23,24].”
BackgroundStatistical causal inference methods for observational research in PER: a primer
Adlakha, V., & Kuo, E. (2023) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2305.14558 · Cited by 3
INFLUENCE OF SPORTS ELECTIVE COURSES ON COLLEGE STUDENTS’ PHYSICAL HEALTH
Li, Q., Yan, S., Wang, L., Peng, W., & Sang, X. (2023) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte · doi:10.1590/1517-8692202329012022_0790 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Webb, D. (2021) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2109.09240 · Cited by 3
“The main reason for examining between-group affects is to add a voice to the growing body of recent research [4][5][6] on between-group demographic studies.”
BackgroundA Cost-Effective Model to Address Student Readiness Through the Lens of a College Physics Course
Forrest, R., Pattison, D., Hawkins, J., Martens, M., Jacobs, L., & Chen, S. (2021) · International Journal of Innovative Teaching and Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.4018/ijitlhe.289945 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
““Local” diagnostic Tools In the authors’ experience (Forrest et al., 2017), in contrast to other studies (Salehi et al., 2019), standardized measures of college readiness (such as the SAT), do not adequately predict success in physics.”
ResultWebb, D. J., & Paul, C. A. (2025) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2504.09418 · Cited by 2
“Some of the leading theories for the gender gaps in physics are that women on average i) have poorer physics and/or math preparation [6, 9, 10], ii) have less overall interest in physics [11], and/or iii) suffer more from test anxiety, which is amplified on high-stakes exams [7, 10, 12–16].”
Adaricheva, K., Brockman, J., Elston, G., Hobbie, L., Homan, S., Khalefa, M., Kim, J. V., Nelson, R. K., Samad, S., & Segal, O. (2025) · arXiv.org · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2503.12321 · Cited by 2
Denaro, K., Molinaro, M., Fiorini, S., Matz, R. L., Mead, C., Motika, M., Tarchinski, N. A., Medinaceli, M. V., Byrd, W. C., Koester, B. P., et al. (2024) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.24-02-0051 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Inequitable grade outcomes in introductory science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses are well documented in discipline-based education research (Matz et al. , 2017; Salehi et al. , 2019; Borda et al. , 2020; Mead et al. , 2020; Castle et al., 2024).”
How you can change gender stereotypes about physicists
Wade, J. (2022) · Nature Reviews Physics · doi:10.1038/s42254-022-00517-4 · Cited by 2
Gender expression appraisals in introductory physics courses: A cross-institutional replication
Li, Y., & Leibnitz, N. (2026) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2606.26143 · Cited by 1
“Prior research has also documented gender disparities in performance [3 – 19], motivational beliefs [18,20 – 26], and other educational outcomes [27 – 29], motivating calls for instructional and structural reform.”
Pre-instruction diagnostic tests can predict grade probabilities in introductory physics
Meltzer, D. E., & King, D. H. (2025) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/5.0255768 · Cited by 1
Smith, E., Helwig, J., Hendren, K., Huk, J. M., & Gordon, V. (2025) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/5.0070669 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Santana, L., Malespina, A., Li, Y., & Singh, C. (2024) · European journal of physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/ad8aaa · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Other studies show correlation between prior preparation ( e.g. Scholastic Achievement Test math ( SAT ) or American College Testing ( ACT ) scores ) and performance in college introductory courses [ 4 – 7 ] .”
Low, A., & Kalender, Z. (2024) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2408.05853 · Cited by 1
“Therefore it is essential to use multivariate regression models that account for multiple variables simultaneously [22, 39, 83].”
MethodWorkforce Development Through Research-Based, Plasma-Focused Activities
Kostadinova, E., Greco, S. L., Murdock, M., Barraza-Valdez, E., Hasson, H., West-Abdallah, I., Harper, C., Brown, K., Scime, E., Dollar, F., et al. (2023) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2303.06390 · Cited by 1
“It has been shown that the performance metrics of marginalized groups strongly depend on preparatory levels even before joining the programs (which could be due to a vast array of socioeconomic conditions that preferentially affect marginalized communities) and not due to the skillset of the individuals [27].”
BackgroundChernosky, J. (2022) · Journal of First-generation Student Success · doi:10.1080/26906015.2022.2083418 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chen, Z.-Y., & Zhang, T. (2021) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2108.00601 · Cited by 1
A Framework for Characterizing Learning Contributions Across the Initial Achievement Spectrum
Zu, T.-L. (2026) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2609.12753
“…physics courses may disproportionately benefit students who enter with stronger preparation, whereas appropriately designed active-learning environments have, in some contexts, reduced failure rates and achievement disparities among students with weaker preparation or greater academic risk [13].”
Undergraduate physics students’ understanding of abstract and applied mathematics
Lahdenperä, J., Kevarinmäki, H., Kokkonen, T., & Hynninen, T. (2026) · LUMAT · doi:10.31129/lumat.14.1.2993
“Similar challenges are observed among physics students as insufficient mathematical skills can hinder success in physics courses, while strong mathematical skills are associated with better performance and future success (Pietrocola, 2008; Sadler & Tai, 2007; Salehi et al., 2019).”
Keen, S. L., Albu, E., Rundin, J. S., Hodgens, T., & Motika, M. (2025) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2025.2523348
“…strategies for student success and reasons for student failure in gateway STEM classes (Ballen et al. 2017; Canning et al. 2019; Freeman et al. 2014; Freeman, Haak, and Wenderoth 2011; Salehi et al. 2019; Theobald et al. 2020) but have rarely addressed complex terminology as a source of difficulty.”
Vang, C. Y., Ruiz, A., Otieno, W. A., Berges, J. A., & Prince, J. M. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1801114
Liu, Z., Yang, B., & Huang, S.-Z. (2025) · Education sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15111443
Click, Watch, Learn: The Impact of Student Self-Study Materials on Physics E&M Course Outcomes
Hirons, J., Perry, J. D., Nodurft, D., Crawford, S. D., Bassichis, W., & Erukhimova, T. (2025) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2508.12143
“This is similar to prior studies where math preparation was the highest predictor of student learning [9, 10, 12, 14, 43–45] and that background physics knowledge was a less significant predictor of student performance [12].”
Students priming students for success
Balakumar, P., Fice, H., Richer, S., Western, T., & Yao, J. (2024) · International Journal for Students as Partners · doi:10.15173/ijsap.v8i1.5471
“This is further complicated by the fact that students enter these courses with differing levels of knowledge due to variations in secondary school coverage and students’ personal circumstances (Salehi et al., 2019).”
BackgroundRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND STUDENT DISCIPLINE CHARACTER IN HIGH SCHOOL
Putri, F. I., & Triani, E. (2023) · EduFisika: Jurnal Pendidikan Fisika · doi:10.59052/edufisika.v8i2.27705
“…support the problem-solving process and a set of attitudes that emphasizes a certain attitude towards science, a way of looking at the world and may be useful for future professional development (Salehi et al., 2019; Widyaningsih et al., 2021; Tenti, 2021; Darmaji et al., 2023; Kamid et al., 2022).”
Kostadinova, E., Greco, S., Murdock, M., Barraza-Valdez, E., Hasson, H., West-Abdallah, I., Harper, C., Brown, K., Scime, E., Dollar, F., et al. (2023) · Physics of Plasmas · doi:10.1063/5.0144847
The first Global e-Competition on Astronomy and Astrophysics
Zelko, I., Barclay, C., Eenmäe, T., Kalda, T., Papathanassiou, H., Poljakov, N., Rojas, G. A., Sepp, T., Stachowski, G., & Sule, A. (2021) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/5.0121242
Burkholder, E. (2021) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.013101
Self-citationOpportunity Gaps for Women in Chemical Engineering: A Quantitative Critical Investigation
Burkholder, E. (2024) · 2023 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings · doi:10.18260/1-2--43803
“These obstacles frequently lead to disparities in educational achievement at the university level [9, 15, 16] and underrepresentation in the engineering workforce.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
- Authors
- Salehi, S., Burkholder, E., Lepage, G. P., Pollock, S., & Wieman, C.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Cornell University (US)
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Venue
- Physical Review Physics Education Research
- Publisher
- American Physical Society (APS)
- Published
- 2019-07-18
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 2
- ISSN
- 2469-9896 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2963024378
- Cited by
- 123
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 41.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Physical Review Physics Education Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Methods and Outcomes
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Teaching Methods
- Keywords
- introductory physics, student performance, physics education
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