Electric Vehicles Under Low Temperatures: A Review on Battery Performance, Charging Needs, and Power Grid Impacts

In the paper

“As shown in Figure 2, annual and winter temperature averages are very low in cities and countries with high EV penetration.”

In the paper

“The existing literature on EV-power grid studies assumes that EVs are used under “perfect temperatures” (e.g.21 Celsius) and temperature-related issues are ignored.”

• Also stated in: § C. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS · plain

  “On the other hand, existing literature assumes that EVs operate under optimal driving conditions, namely 21.5°C optimal temperature when they show their best performance.”

In the paper

“Over the last decade, there has been a growing amount of literature on EV grid impact studies that focus on power quality (e.g.voltage, harmonics), transmission congestion, and generation-side impacts [24].”

What the sources say

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  cites [24]

In the paper

“Parking, charging and driving are EVs' operation modes that cause battery degradation, as shown in Figure 7.”

In the paper

“For instance, reaching 50% SoC takes about 21 minutes at 20°C, while achieving the same SoC is nearly 60 minutes at -5°C.”

In the paper

“THD increases gradually and peaks during this time, while TDD decreases gradually and reaches its lowest level.”

In the paper

“There is a gradual decrease in current during the final stage of charging, which occurs over 15 minutes as the battery reaches 77% to 100% of its SoC.”

In the paper

“When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between the identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90°,”

In the paper

“At the beginning of the charging process, THD peaks and then gradually falls as the current gradually increases, while TDD rises at a minimum.”

In the paper

“The current waveform is less distorted during the CC phase but more distorted during the CV phase.”

In the paper

“Harmonics increase with fast charging even more under low temperatures.”

In the paper

“The impacts of EV charging at the distribution level brought power quality issues such as harmonics, voltage drops, and phase unbalances, as well as other problems, including overloading and peak demand increase.”

In the paper

“While this process did not pose a big concern for Level 1 and Level 2 charging (charging power decreased after a few hours), it caused severe problems for fast charging.”

In the paper

“In addition, lithium plating was also becoming an important problem due to fast charging under low temperatures, which can cause permanent damage to the battery's electrodes and lead to reduced capacity, shortened lifespan, and even safety concerns.”

In the paper

“The charging power dropped drastically from the beginning, prolonging the charging time.”

In the paper

“The diffusion rates of the solid electrodes, the conductivity of the electrolyte, and the solidelectrolyte interphase layer (SEI) are reduced by lowering the temperature, resulting in increased internal resistance.”

What the sources say

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  cites [53]

In the paper

“as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”

In the paper

“On-board chargers transfer less power and add another weight to the EV, but the problem of battery heating is not a concern.In contrast, off-board chargers maintain higher power and remove weight on EVs, but the issue of battery heating needs to be addressed [14].”

What the sources say

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  cites [14]

In the paper

“As a result, accelerated internal chemical reactions affect EV performance and safety.”

In the paper

“Finally, low temperatures can also impact battery safety, potentially reducing performance, overheating, and even battery failure.”

In the paper

“The estimated EV demand could be higher in the winter months, the peak hours could be shifted, and additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”

In the paper

“additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”

In the paper

“Li-ion battery technologies have been the dominant energy storage technology for the EV market.”

What the sources say

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  cites [40]
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  cites [42]

In the paper

“The estimated EV demand could be higher in the winter months, the peak hours could be shifted, and additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”

In the paper

“At low temperatures, the battery's rate of degradation increases, leading to a shorter lifespan and reduced overall performance.”

In the paper

“which may hinder mass EV adoption and cause delays in charging station roll-out.”

In the paper

“Moreover, some of these issues are likely to be intensified in regions with low temperatures, which is another significant factor affecting the performance of EV batteries [32].”

What the sources say

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  cites [32]

In the paper

“Secondly, low operating temperatures trigger an increase in the battery's internal resistance, making it more difficult for the lithium ions to move through the electrolyte.”

In the paper

“Last but not least, range anxiety could be boosted in winter months, negatively impacting customer confidence in EVs [31].”

What the sources say

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  cites [31]

In the paper

“According to [55], the battery capacity is at its maximum when the temperature is around 21°C, and the capacity significantly reduces when the temperature goes below 0°C.”

What the sources say

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  cites [55]

In the paper

“This battery can fully charge in over 20 hours of slow charging, whereas it only takes about 1 hour of fast charging (e.g.50 kW) under the optimum temperatures.”

What the sources say

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  cites [19]

In the paper

“Various charging methods, namely fast charging, trickle charging, pulse charging, smart charging and temperature control are used to reduce battery degradation and charging time [80], [100].”

What the sources say

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  cites [80]
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  cites [100]

In the paper

“Compared with other systems, like fluid handling, the flow control requires only basic equipment and a small amount of real estate [110].”

What the sources say

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  cites [110]

In the paper

“For a 1.5 Ah cell, the temperature reliance of the L cycle is established empirically per Ah in [98]; this is normalised by multiplying by 1.5 Ah/cycle [99].”

What the sources say

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  cites [98]
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  cites [99]

In the paper

“Battery degradation leads to capacity loss, decreasing range and internal resistance, increasing energy-power losses and overheating [66].”

What the sources say

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  cites [66]

In the paper

“There are two major consequences of battery ageing: increased resistance and capacity loss [83].”

What the sources say

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  cites [83]

In the paper

“Cells held at 0% SoC have the best capacity retention and the most negligible temperature dependence for the one year studied, while cells maintained at 100% SoC do not indicate the fastest capacity reduction, but they produce internal short circuits when the temperature is above 40°C.”

What the sources say

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  cites [91]

In the paper

“This can be achieved by battery thermal management systems (BTMS) [28].”

What the sources say

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  cites [28]

In the paper

“The BTMS is designed to maintain battery temperatures within a completely EV operational envelope, within a temperature operating range that is closer to ideal (15°C and 35°C) [64].”

What the sources say

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  cites [64]

In the paper

“Understanding battery degradation behaviour under varying temperatures requires developing degradation modelling methods for batteries.”

In the paper

“Therefore, low temperatures make battery modelling and analyzing battery behaviour more challenging and lead to complex EV management systems [28].”

What the sources say

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  cites [28]

In the paper

“The significance of BTMS in EVs arises from the adverse effects of low temperatures on battery electrochemical properties and performance, which consequently affect the vehicle's overall performance, as can be seen in Table 2.”

In the paper

“General heat rejection equation [103], prediction of the temperature in the battery cell with one-dimensional modelling [104], using experimental data with different temperature and discharge rates [105], with the combination of heat generation equations and chemical reactions on the battery [106] are some thermal modelling methods as the preparation of battery thermal management systems.”

What the sources say

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  cites [103]
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  cites [105]

In the paper

“These parameters can be measured directly or using an equivalent circuit-based model with battery modelling [85].”

What the sources say

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  cites [85]

In the paper

“The higher the polarization, the longer the Li-ion battery takes to complete its diffusion, causing the reduction of the battery power capacity.”

In the paper

“In contrast, it is not successful in providing detailed information about the battery's internal structure, and molecular-level degradation processes are still lacking [73], [74].”

What the sources say

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  cites [73]
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  cites [74]

In the paper

“Low temperatures not only lead to a reduction of diffusion rate and intercalation, but also grows the lithium dendrite that might cause lithium plating [65].”

What the sources say

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  cites [65]

In the paper

“a potential problem that can arise is a decrease in power when operating an EV under low temperatures, which can lead to a reduction of driving range.”

In the paper

“A lesser capacity is achieved in the latter, but there is no noticeable reduction in charging time or degradation [93].”

What the sources say

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  cites [93]

In the paper

“Lower diffusion time/higher diffusion rates, lower internal resistance, and lower activation energies are required for batteries with increased power capabilities [52], [61].”

What the sources say

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  cites [52]
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  cites [61]

In the paper

“Safety measures need to be implemented to prevent thermal runaway, which can cause the battery to overheat and increasing the internal pressure is critical for battery safety [101].”

What the sources say

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  cites [101]

In the paper

“Nevertheless, the current tendency in thermal management is to aim to improve battery pack architecture to get a longer distance range or faster charging times [109].”

What the sources say

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  cites [109]

In the paper

“The ability of the battery to deliver high current over short periods of time (a few seconds) is directly related to its power capabilities [10].”

What the sources say

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  cites [10]

In the paper

“Therefore, the model is reliable and effective in both operating ranges covered by the experimental data and other operating scenarios.”

In the paper

“EVs must comply with safety standards and regulations that vary from country to country, impacting the vehicle's design, which consists of battery cells [29].”

What the sources say

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  cites [29]

In the paper

“Li-ion batteries experience battery life degradation due to various reasons including charging-discharging cycles, high current rates, and operating under excessively high or low temperatures [29].”

What the sources say

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  cites [29]

In the paper

“This may cause the battery to be destroyed and increase the likelihood of fire and explosion, resulting in potentially fatal consequences [101].”

What the sources say

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  cites [101]

In the paper

“The power conversion efficiency of a 50 kW fast charger is 93% at 25°C, compared to 39% at -25°C as a result of BMSs requesting reduced power levels at lower temperatures [132].”

What the sources say

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  cites [132]

In the paper

“This heating method is unaffected by the shape of the batteries [119].”

What the sources say

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  cites [119]

In the paper

“As opposed to the widely used external heating, internal heating can achieve a higher rate of temperature rise in a shorter time, minimizing the effects of thermal ageing.”

What the sources say

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  cites [121]

In the paper

“Since battery preheating contributes to regenerative braking, traction consumption decreases slightly with preheating.”

What the sources say

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  cites [122]

In the paper

“In addition, the average charging power difference between summer and winter was also found to be 6.63 kW because the charging current is limited and depends on the battery temperature during fast charging.”

What the sources say

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  cites [133]

In the paper

“Liquid heating control systems are more effective than air heating control systems because liquid-based methods have higher thermal conductivity and higher convective heat transfer rates.”

What the sources say

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  cites [115]

In the paper

“A measurement conducted in Sweden [134] found that when the ambient temperature is below 10°C, the charging current is 25 A, while the ambient temperature is above 20°C, the charging current is 125 A.”

What the sources say

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  cites [134]

In the paper

“Low temperatures can significantly decrease the driving range of EVs due to the reduced capacity of the Li-ion battery and increased consumption HVAC system.”

What the sources say

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  cites [25]
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  cites [26]

In the paper

“Finally, energy supplied from the battery with preheating decreased by 10.4% for urban and 4.7% for highways; the total energy consumption increased by 33% and 13%, respectively.”

What the sources say

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  cites [122]

In the paper

“This heating method, which has not become as widespread and developed as external heating, is still at the laboratory stage [108].”

What the sources say

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  cites [108]

In the paper

“The best cooling performance was achieved with fans located at the top of the pack, according to results presented by [111].”

What the sources say

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  cites [111]

In the paper

“Preheating and internal heaters are often preferred as they can provide more targeted and efficient heating.”

In the paper

“This decreases the amount of energy that can be used for driving, thereby shortening the vehicle's range of operation [25], [141].”

What the sources say

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  cites [141]

In the paper

“With lower temperatures, the possibility of lithium plating during charging increases considerably, reducing battery capacity [121], [131].”

What the sources say

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  cites [121]
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  cites [131]

In the paper

“However, due to EVs' high-efficiency drivetrain, little waste is generated, necessitating the provision of heating systems for providing thermal comfort inside cabins [140].”

What the sources say

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  cites [140]

In the paper

“After this period, minor differences are observed, as shown in Figure 12.”

What the sources say

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  cites [139]

In the paper

“To ensure thermal comfort inside an EV cabin during low temperatures, cabin heating requirements are increased, which results in rapidly depleting energy from the batteries [26].”

What the sources say

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  cites [26]

In the paper

“In the last part of the charging session, the charging power gradually decreases.”

What the sources say

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  cites [139]

In the paper

“It has been noted that the delivered charging power is reduced to 30.2 kW from 50 kW peak power fast-charging stations, and these sessions lasted on average 20.5 minutes and supplied 9.6 kWh of energy.”

What the sources say

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  cites [133]

In the paper

“The best-case correlation between EV demand and temperature is found as follows:”

• Also stated in: § B. ADDITIONAL DEMAND FOR EV CABIN THERMAL COMFORT · plain

  “y = -2.76× T + 47.5.”

What the sources say

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  cites [143]

In the paper

“According to [26], the worst-case correlation scenario between ambient temperature and energy demand assumes that both HVAC and AC are actively engaged.In addition, this test was conducted outside in winter weather conditions.”

What the sources say

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  cites [26]

In the paper

“One of the most fundamental ways to improve the performance and life of Li-ion batteries for EVs under low-temperature conditions is to warm up the batteries [119], [120].”

What the sources say

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  cites [119]
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  cites [120]

In the paper

“A number of studies present the correlation between the ambient temperature and the energy demand, which is often simplified to a linear correlation [142].”

What the sources say

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  cites [142]

In the paper

“For instance, 360-V electrical heaters heat the coolant water circuit that circulates the battery pack of the Chevrolet Volt [116].”

What the sources say

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  cites [116]

In the paper

“Battery discharging current is unrestricted under low temperatures while charging battery current is reduced to avoid undesirable effects if the ambient temperature drops below specific limits, showing the importance of low temperatures for charging EVs [127].”

What the sources say

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  cites [127]

In the paper

“This can help to improve the battery's performance and extend its lifespan in cold weather conditions [28], [122].”

What the sources say

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  cites [28]
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  cites [122]

In the paper

“However, preheating takes tens of minutes, causing EV drivers to wait to use their vehicles [122].”

What the sources say

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  cites [122]

In the paper

“For an EV driver who wants to use slow charging for a few hours, it is observed that there is no significant difference in the charging pattern since the charging power is much lower than the fast charging, and most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) charging rates.”

In the paper

“Low temperatures not only impact battery performance and longevity but also affect the thermal comfort of an EV cabin.”

In the paper

“When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between the identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90°, implying that the amplitudes will add.”

In the paper

“IEC 61000-3-2 [183], and IEC 61000-3-4 [184] are the standards that apply to EV chargers, and they set limitations on harmonic emissions that EV chargers inject into the grid.”

What the sources say

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  cites [183]
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  cites [184]

In the paper

“Many power electronic devices connected to the grid increase the harmonic emissions in the system.”

In the paper

“Therefore, in cold climates, the battery is heated firstly by trickle charging, and the battery cells are brought to 20-25°C to make them ready to charge efficiently.”

What the sources say

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  cites [182]

In the paper

“Harmonic cancellation is more likely at higher harmonic orders, resulting in the THD I reduction.”

In the paper

“Power quality is a combination of current and voltage quality, and both current and voltage disturbances adversely affect the grid and its components [155].”

What the sources say

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  cites [155]

In the paper

“There has also been evidence to suggest that harmonic cancellation occurs more frequently at higher harmonic orders, which can explain the relatively minor THD I decrease observed in different studies [168].”

What the sources say

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  cites [168]

In the paper

“In contrast, wind generators and charging stations selected in the appropriate size and location can reduce harmonics by cancelling their harmonics [166].”

What the sources say

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  cites [166]

In the paper

“The harmonics were slightly decreased because the amplitudes were not perfectly summed up in the two EVs.”

What the sources say

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  cites [162]

In the paper

“Level 2 chargers deliver more power and are typically located in public facilities.”

In the paper

“A single EV is equal to approximately 1.5 computers and 10 compact fluorescent lamps in terms of their impact on harmonics.”

What the sources say

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  cites [149]

In the paper

“However, occasional problems might arise due to resonances since they amplify the harmonics [155].”

What the sources say

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  cites [155]

In the paper

“The impact of these issues is mainly reflected in the load profile of consumers and equipment (overheating of transformers, cables, and motors, malfunction of smart metering devices and the sensitive control equipment, mechanical damage to electrical motors nearby, and impacting the performance of other sensitive control and monitoring instruments) in the grid.”

In the paper

“The unbalance in distribution phases leads to energy losses and increases the heating of network equipment.”

In the paper

“Non-linear loads, such as EV chargers, computers, adjustable speed drives and air conditioners, produce harmonics.”

In the paper

“Harmonic distortion is a type of electric network pollution that can become problematic if the total harmonic currents exceed certain thresholds decided by industry standards [163].”

What the sources say

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  cites [163]

In the paper

“In modern power systems, there is a problem of nonlinearity in terms of generation and demand [159], [160].”

What the sources say

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  cites [159]
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  cites [160]

In the paper

“According to the simulation results with one and two EVs, both TDD values were close by approximately 12%.”

What the sources say

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  cites [162]

In the paper

“if the load is dominantly capacitive, the amount of harmonic distortion may also increase”

What the sources say

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  cites [163]

In the paper

“In real-world engineering applications, THD is usually calculated first and compared to the limits.If there is a problem, TDD is calculated [162].”

What the sources say

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  cites [162]

In the paper

“In addition, audible noise occurs in the presence of high harmonic emissions [155].”

What the sources say

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  cites [155]

In the paper

“According to [166], wind generators and EVs produce common harmonic current sources even at low EV penetration, significantly affecting the electricity grid.”

What the sources say

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  cites [166]

In the paper

“Voltage distortion occurs throughout the network due to the flow of distorted currents.”

In the paper

“The charging of the Li-ion battery is stopped when it is nearly fully charged, preventing the battery from becoming overcharged [182].”

What the sources say

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  cites [182]

In the paper

“According to authors examining low voltage nonlinear loads in Ref. [175], cancellation becomes more likely as the number of users and appliances rises.”

What the sources say

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  cites [175]

In the paper

“The harmonic distortions due to different EVSE technology and the rated capacity may also be different.”

In the paper

“In the case of resonance, the distortion rises, leading to higher distortion levels in the nodes moving away from the harmonic source.”

In the paper

“The second set of studies focuses on regional/national impacts on power grid reliability/stability and peak generation increase [152], [153].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [152]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [153]

In the paper

“However, vehicles charged at home can increase the neutralground voltage, leading to stray voltage problems.”

In the paper

“The latter, in contrast, investigates different EVSE penetration scenarios and estimates additional electrical demand needed to charge EVs in a region.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [152]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [153]

In the paper

“According to this study, domestic charging has a negligible harmonic impact on a power grid in the foreseeable future (up to 2022).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [149]

In the paper

“When a considerable number of EVs are charged via Level 3 charging simultaneously, the line voltage and frequency deviate, the harmonics injected into the line current increase, and the peak load on the grid rises [173], [174].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [173]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [174]

In the paper

“In addition to the factors discussed above, constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) charging, the standard used during fast charging, affects the harmonics level.”

In the paper

“The first group of studies examine the impacts of EV charging at the distribution level and primarily evaluates the impacts on power quality, namely harmonics, substation overloading, voltage drops, and phase unbalances [16], [148]- [150].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [16]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [148]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [149]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [150]

In the paper

“Although THD V does not exceed IEEE standards at low voltage levels (THD V <5%), V2G appears as critical in harmonic distortion as charging.”

In the paper

“For example, transformers might be overloaded with increasing demand for additional EV power in urban areas where load density is high.”

In the paper

“With a variety of EV chargers from different manufacturers, there will likely be a variety of harmonic patterns.”

In the paper

“Beyond the level of SoC charged with the CC phase, CV is used until the battery is fully charged [180].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [180]

In the paper

“Since TDD and I L are rarely needed, the concept of THD is widely used.”

In the paper

“the variability of the patterns may result in significant harmonic cancellation [174]”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [174]

In the paper

“Harmonic distortion plays a crucial role in terms of power quality due to the growth of the number of EVSEs.”

In the paper

“Level 3 chargers, the fastest charging method, are located on commercial charging applications with a dedicated transformer [171].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [171]

In the paper

“Level 1 chargers are primarily supplied from domestic outlets.”

In the paper

“On the other hand, transformers heat up due to additional losses caused by harmonic currents [165].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [165]

In the paper

“In another study on Level 1 charging [163], it has been observed that the 3rd harmonic had the highest harmonic magnitude.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [163]

In the paper

“adding chargers from different manufacturers to the same distribution network will result in diverse harmonic patterns”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [174]

In the paper

“4.7 million EVs are predicted in 2030 in the slowest decarbonization scenario (”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“Reference [207] estimates that the UK will have more than 7 million ultra-low emission vehicles by 2030.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [207]

In the paper

“The regional difference in energy demand for large collections of EVs potentially poses a risk to the operators if the charging infrastructure is not properly planned.”

In the paper

“In order to mitigate an overvoltage with one customer, for example, an undervoltage is established for other consumers, or vice versa [155].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [155]

In the paper

“Reducing the feeder length by adding more transformers to the power network is one of the classical mitigation methods [198].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [198]

In the paper

“In contrast, the active components of the same devices cause these problems at low voltage levels.”

In the paper

“According to the EN 50160 standard [187], the 10-minute rms values of voltage levels should be between 90 and 110% of the rated value (e.g.230V, 110V, etc.).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [187]

In the paper

“In this case, the power system cannot handle varying demands, and frequency deviations could lead to system stability issues.”

In the paper

“According to this study, most EVs are charged with standard single-phase AC sockets in the customers' houses, and it is assumed that the EVs are connected to the distribution grid through the same point as the residence.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [203]

In the paper

“It can be up to 3% in some particular circumstances [187], [201].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [187]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [201]

In the paper

“The impacts of EV charging on power networks under”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [214]

In the paper

“On the other hand, this increased penetration of EVs also has the potential to compensate for the load and grid problems caused by increased wind and solar energy production.”

In the paper

“In those studies, the temperature was not generally considered, and the optimum temperature was assumed as the ambient temperature.”

In the paper

“Total annual energy demand from road transport due to transportation electrification is expected to be around 100 TWh for both scenarios.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“According to the IEC international standard, since the ratio denominator in equations ( 7) and ( 8) are the total rms value, the THD value never surpasses 100%.”

In the paper

“The presence of EVs and other traditional loads in electricity distribution networks creates an increased demand, which also causes voltage drops in the power grid [193].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [193]

In the paper

“According to Deloitte's assumption [208], 31.1 million EVs will be on the roads worldwide in the same year.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [208]

In the paper

“For instance, National Grid in the UK estimates that EVs will create an additional 18 GW of demand by 2025, which represents an extra 30% of today's peak demand [206].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“The former and the latter predict 23 and 31 million EVs on the road by the year 2040.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“The National Grid's future energy scenario [206], outlined in 2021, a significant increase has been seen in EV sales compared to previous years despite the pandemic.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“The flexibility provided by these two methods can lead to shaving peak demand in the mid-scenario”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [206]

In the paper

“Light flicker is a common side effect of fast voltage fluctuations.”

In the paper

“With the increase in EV demand, there will also be a significant proliferation in the number of charging stations.”

In the paper

“For instance, the voltage drop in phase-c reaches the lower limit of 0.9 per unit (pu) after penetration of 20%, while phasea and phase-b reach the same limit when integration is 27% and 44%, respectively.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [203]

In the paper

“At the distribution level, uncontrolled EV demand could increase the peak loading of transformers and lead to power quality issues (mainly voltage drops and phase unbalances).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [214]

In the paper

“In addition to these standards, IEEE 519-2014 [188] provide recommendations for voltage and current distortion limits for network operators and users, respectively.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [188]

In the paper

“Reactive power control can be a possible solution for large installations connected to medium voltage networks or facilities directly connected to the distribution transformer.”

In the paper

“The ideal frequency range is between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz for a 50 Hz system [155].”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [155]

In the paper

“Mainstream use of EVs will increase the peak loading of the power systems.”

In the paper

“The IEC 61000-4-7 [185], and IEC 61000-4-30 [186] standards handle these harmonic measurements and instrumentation.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [185]
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [186]

In the paper

“TDD was measured above 2% with 120 A (rated current), while TDD is around 1% regarded as good power quality for 400 V (rated voltage).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [134]

In the paper

“One possible solution to address the issues faced by batteries under low temperatures while on standby or charging could be to keep them in a warm environment, like battery swapping stations.”

In the paper

“However, if large vehicle fleets are charged with fast charging during the day, EV load demand increases significantly.”

In the paper

“The hybridization of supercapacitors with batteries [224] could provide a high power density and cushion temperature impact.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [224]

In the paper

“In contrast, with the decrease in temperature, the charging power decreases, and the harmonics increase.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [215]