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Thermoregulation in Winter Swimmers and Physiological Significance of Human Catecholamine Thermogenesis
Open accessAbstract
Thermoregulation in control subjects and cold‐adapted winter swimmers was examined during 1 h of cold water immersion (13°C). It was found that the thermoregulatory functions of winter swimmers differ from those of non‐cold‐adapted subjects. As evident from the relationship between rectal temperature and the magnitude of cold thermogenesis, in controls a significant part of cold thermogenesis during the early phase of cooling was induced by changes in peripheral temperature input, while in the late phase of cooling it was the central temperature input which was mainly engaged in induction of cold thermogenesis. In winter swimmers the magnitude of cold thermogenesis was solely related to changes in rectal temperature, indicating the predominance of the central temperature input in activation of heat production mechanisms. The thermoregulatory threshold for induction of cold thermogenesis was lowered (by 0.34°C), but the apparent hypothalamic thermosensitivity was the same as in non‐cold‐adapted subjects. These differences are indicative of adaptation of thermoregulatory control centres. Additionally, the activity of thermoregulatory effectors was also changed. Shivering was induced later during cooling (after 40 min) in winter swimmers than in controls, which suggests an important participation of non‐shivering thermogenesis in the early thermogenic response. Winter swimmers also showed bradycardia and a greater reduction in plasma volume during cooling. The data indirectly indicate restriction of heat loss from the body. Only a non‐significant increase in quantity of subcutaneous fat was observed in winter swimmers. Thus, winter swimmers were able to survive a significantly greater temperature gradient between body and environment than non‐cold‐adapted subjects by modifying the sensory functions of hypothalamic thermoregulatory centres to lower heat loss and produce less heat during cold exposure. Additionally, the capacity of the total cold thermogenesis due to potentiation of non‐shivering heat production was also increased. Heat produced due to thermogenic action of adrenaline may represent more than a quarter of the total cold thermogenesis. In conclusion, the data suggest that winter swimmers exhibit metabolic, hypothermic and insulative types of cold adaptation.
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“In humans, for example, when cold exposure is not extreme, NST precedes shivering thermogenesis 61 62.”
From Cellular bioenergetics as a target for obesity therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [61]
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Cited by
Cold acclimation recruits human brown fat and increases nonshivering thermogenesis
van der Lans, A. A. J. J., Hoeks, J., Brans, B., Vijgen, G. H. E. J., Visser, M. G. W., Vosselman, M. J., Hansen, J., Jörgensen, J. A., Wu, J., Mottaghy, F. M., et al. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci68993 · Cited by 771
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“Indeed, recent [(18)F]FDG-PET studies confirmed that cold acclimation increases BAT activity in parallel with an increased NST (48, 60).”
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Knechtle, B., Waśkiewicz, Z., Sousa, C. V., Hill, L., & Nikolaidis, P. Τ. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17238984 · Cited by 125
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“348C and delayed their shivering response (Vybiral et al., 2000).”
BackgroundHealth effects of voluntary exposure to cold water – a continuing subject of debate
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“This is a temporarily change in the cold sensation and regulation lasting some weeks after cessation of cold water exposure (53, 57), meaning that winter swimmers undergo an acclimatization of thermal sensation and comfort, and not a permanent adaptation.”
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“[22,11,53,46] and are indicative of an adaptive shift after CA from peripheral-to-central to central temperature input thermoregulation of hypothalamic thermoregulatory control centres by modifying sensory functions [5,53].”
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Effects of Whole-Body Cryotherapy in the Management of Adhesive Capsulitis of the Shoulder
Ma, S.-Y., Je, H. D., Jeong, J. H., Kim, H., & Kim, H.-D. (2012) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2012.07.013 · Cited by 58
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Cold-induced heat production preceding shivering
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“Although NST in humans preceding the onset of shivering, or in addition to shivering, has been observed before (Paolone & Paolone, 1995; Vybiral et al. 2000), opinions on the existence and mechanisms involved are still divided (Nedergaard et al.”
InfluentialWinter Swimming: Body Hardening and Cardiorespiratory Protection Via Sustainable Acclimation
Manolis, A. S., Manolis, S. A., Manolis, A. S., Manolis, T. A., Apostolaki, N. E., & Melita, H. (2019) · Current Sports Medicine Reports · doi:10.1249/jsr.0000000000000653 · Cited by 47
Could human cold adaptation decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease?
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Self-citationvan Ooijen, A. M. J., Lichtenbelt, W. D. V. M., & Westerterp, K. R. (2001) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4565(01)00060-2 · Cited by 44
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“…characterized by a delayed onset of shivering (Hong, 1963; Hong et al., 1986; Park and Hong, 1991; Rintamaki et al., 1993; Livingstone et al., 1996; Vybiral et al., 2000; Kovtoun and Krivoschekov, 2001; Ferretti and Costa, 2003; Castellani and Young, 2016; Tipton, 2016), which conserves energy by…”
InfluentialLubkowska, A., Dołęgowska, B., Szyguła, Z., Bryczkowska, I., Stańczyk-Dunaj, M., Sałata, D., & Budkowska, M. (2013) · Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation · doi:10.3109/00365513.2013.773594 · Cited by 41
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“Also, winter swimmers show an increased capacity of non-shivering heat production.(9) In the present study, body fat was not associated with performance.”
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“Acute cold water exposure increases the blood pressure, but it does not remain elevated (12).”
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Nishimura, T., Motoi, M., Egashira, Y., Choi, D., Aoyagi, K., & Watanuki, S. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-015-0051-9 · Cited by 30
“In addition, Vybúral [5] reported the importance of hormonal effects on NST in winter swimmers.”
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Janovská, P., Zouhar, P., Bardová, K., Otáhal, J., Vrbacký, M., Mráček, T., Adamcová, K., Lenkova, L., Funda, J., Čajka, T., et al. (2023) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2023.101683 · Cited by 22
“However, while the adaptive nature of NST is widely accepted for BAT, for skeletal muscle this remains a matter of longstanding controversy [14,43,44].”
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“The body’s thermoregulatory systems can be prompted to adapt to exposure to cold in a variety of insulative, hypothermic and metabolic ways through regular immersion in cold water (Hong et al., 1987; Makinen, 2010; Vybiral et al., 2000), although Makinen notes in the conclusion to her overview of the research on cold…”
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“Conversely, haemoconcentration accompanies cold-water immersion (Rochelle and Horvath 1978; Young et al. 1987; Deuster et al. 1989; Vybı́ral et al. 2000) and is believed to be associated with the thermal stress of cold water (Deuster et al.”
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“Although ST generates most of the heat in adults, a greater contribution of NST may be favoured in the early stages of mild cold stress and thermo-regulation (Vybíral et al., 2000).”
BackgroundCold acclimation affects immune composition in skeletal muscle of healthy lean subjects
van der Lans, A. A. J. J., Boon, M. R., Haks, M. C., Quinten, E., Schaart, G., Ottenhoff, T. H. M., & Lichtenbelt, W. D. V. M. (2015) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.12394 · Cited by 21
“(Vybiral et al. 2000), who found that winter swimmers have nonsignificant (trend) lower adrenalin levels during cold exposure when compared with control subjects.”
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Relationship between seasonal cold acclimatization and mtDNA haplogroup in Japanese
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“However, recent studies have reported an increase in thermogenesis even in conditions when shivering does not occur [21,22], and they have suggested that NST is involved in cold tolerance [27-29].”
BackgroundEffect of repeated forearm muscle cooling on the adaptation of skeletal muscle metabolism in humans
Wakabayashi, H., Nishimura, T., Wijayanto, T., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Biometeorology · doi:10.1007/s00484-016-1303-z · Cited by 18
“A number of researchers have studied the adaptation of nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) after repeated cold exposures in humans (Vybiral et al. 2000; van Marken Lichtenbelt and Daanen 2003; van Marken Lichtenbelt and Schrauwen 2011; van der Lans et al. 2013; Yoneshiro et al. 2013; Nishimura et al.…”
BackgroundThe influence of winter swimming on the rheological properties of blood
Teległów, A., Dąbrowski, Z., Marchewka, A., et al. (2014) · Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation · doi:10.3233/ch-141823 · Cited by 17
“The lower perfusion, in turn, results from a decreased cardiac output and cardiac rate, as well as the constriction of dermal blood vessels [37, 44].”
Tibenská, V., Benesova, A., Vebr, P., Liptakova, A., Hejnová, L., Elsnicová, B., Drahota, Z., Hornikova, D., Galatik, F., Kolar, D., et al. (2020) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00511.2019 · Cited by 16
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“Since cold exposure increases blood level of noradrenaline (Janský et al. 1996b, 1997; Vybíral et al. 2000; Krámek et al. 2000; Kimebková et al. 2000), this approach comes out from the assumption that infusions of adrenergic substances, namely noradrenaline, simulate conditions of cold exposure.”
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“On the other hand, strength of this study was its novelty as previous studies on swimming in cold used shorter exercise distances such as 150 m (22) or warmer water temperatures (40).”
BackgroundEnvironment and Thyroid Function
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Throsby, K. (2016) · Manchester University Press eBooks · doi:10.7765/9781526100467.00019
Winter swimming – is it possible to develop adaptation to cold temperature? A literature review
Brzoza, M., Stawińska-Dudek, J., Buras, B., Orzeł, M., Orzeł, B., Aboud, A., Józefowicz, W., Bielecka, A., Dubniański, B., & Stawińśka, K. (2025) · Journal of Education Health and Sport · doi:10.12775/jehs.2025.80.59375 · Cited by 1
“Therefore, it may be concluded that in winter swimmers, the mechanism of nonshivering thermogenesis seems to be better developed and within the first hour after cold water immersion it serves as a main mechanism in the process of thermal energy production (6)(10)(37).”
InfluentialPHYSIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF WINTER SWIMMING: A COMPREHENSIVE MEDICAL REVIEW
Gryboś, K., Sepioło, W., Boniakowska, I., Kamińska, I., Wydra, M., Przerwa, J., Wąsik, J., Stachowicz, I., Gawron, E., Samborska, J., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science · doi:10.31435/ijitss.3(47).2025.3891
“[15 ] A study analyzed changes in thermal homeostasis after repeated exposures to cold water among young sportsmen.”
Factors influencing acute tympanic temperature changes during cold water exposure
Karafová, A., Karafa, M., Kopciński, B., Kortas, J. A., Verme, F., & Capodaglio, P. (2026) · International Journal of Circumpolar Health · doi:10.1080/22423982.2026.2680803
“Several adaptations, including their metabolic, insulative and hypothermic types, can be exhibited by winter swimmers [19].”
Pulmonary ventilation following acclimation to a hot environment
Beaudin, A. E. (2007) · Summit (Simon Fraser University)
Metadata
- Authors
- Vybíral, S., Lesná, I., Jansky, L., & Zeman, V.
- Affiliations
- Charles University (CZ)
- Venue
- Experimental Physiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-05
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 321-326
- ISSN
- 0958-0670 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-445X
- OpenAlex
- W2063620387
- Cited by
- 95
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 1.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Experimental Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Univerzita Karlova v Praze
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine › Thermal Regulation in Medicine
- Keywords
- thermoregulation, cold adaptation, catecholamines, epinephrine, non-shivering thermogenesis, shivering, rectal temperature, cold water immersion, bradycardia, plasma volume, subcutaneous adipose tissue, thermogenesis
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Adult, Blood Pressure, Body Temperature, Body Temperature Regulation, Catecholamines, Cold Temperature, Epinephrine, Female, Heart Rate, Hemodynamics, Humans, Male, Norepinephrine, Plasma Volume, Swimming
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
