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Unifying the definitions of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
Open accessAbstract
Summary: Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is a category of death in people with epilepsy occurring in the absence of a known structural cause of death and is most likely heterogeneous with regard to mechanisms and circumstances. SUDEP is particularly difficult to investigate in research studies for several reasons, including its relatively low incidence, its unpredictable occurrence often in unwitnessed settings, and its low rate of complete autopsy examinations. Over the past two decades, two complementary definitions have been used in most SUDEP studies, but often with variations. We propose here a unified SUDEP definition and classification to resolve current ambiguities and to retrieve cases that would not have been further studied if the previous definitions were used. The proposed Unified SUDEP Definition and Classification contains, in addition to concepts inherent in the previous definitions, nine main recommendations. (1) The word “unexpected,” and not the word “unexplained,” should be uniformly used in the term SUDEP . (2) The SUDEP category should be applied when appropriate, whether or not a terminal seizure is known to have occurred. (3) The “Possible SUDEP” category should be used only for cases with competing causes of death, with cases left unclassified when data are insufficient to reasonably permit their classification. (4) Cases that would otherwise fulfill the definition of SUDEP should be designated as “SUDEP Plus” when evidence indicates that a preexisting condition, known before or after autopsy, could have contributed to the death, which otherwise is classified as SUDEP (e.g., coronary insufficiency with no evidence of myocardial infarction or long‐QT syndrome with no documented primary ventricular arrhythmia leading to death). (5) To be considered SUDEP, the death should have occurred within 1 h from the onset of a known terminal event. (6) For status epilepticus as an exclusion criterion for SUDEP, the duration of seizure activity should be 30 min or more. (7) A specific category of SUDEP due to asphyxia should not be designated, the distinction being largely impractical on circumstantial or autopsy evidence, with more than one mechanism likely to be contributory in many cases. (8) Death occurring in water but without circumstantial or autopsy evidence of submersion should be classified as “Possible SUDEP.” If any evidence of submersion is present, the death should not be classified as SUDEP. (9) A category of “Near‐SUDEP” should be agreed to include cases in which cardiorespiratory arrest was reversed by resuscitation efforts with subsequent survival for more than 1 h. Scenarios that demonstrate the basis for each SUDEP category are described. If disagreement exists about which category fits a particular case, we suggest the use of consensus decision by a panel of informed reviewers to adjudicate the classification of the case.
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“The primary cause of death is sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) 17 ; other causes include cerebral oedema following status epilepticus 18 , chest infections and accidental causes 19 .”
From Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
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“…as “ sudden, unexpected, witnessed or unwitnessed, non-traumatic, and non-drowning death in people with epilepsy, with or without evidence for a seizure and excluding documented status epilepticus, in which postmortem examination does not reveal a toxicologic or anatomic cause of death ” [5] .”
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“SUDEP is defined as a sudden, unexpected, non‑trau - matic and non-drowning death in a person with epilepsy, occurring from a previously stable state of health, which may or may not be preceded by an epileptic seizure [48].”
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“If criteria are met but an autopsy is not performed, then is called probable SUDEP [38,39].”
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Güngör, M., Arslan, E. A., Tezer, F. İ., & Saygı, S. (2015) · Nöro Psikiyatri Arşivi · doi:10.5152/npa.2015.7553 · Cited by 3
“In 2011, Nashef et al. (5), at a meeting of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), reviewed the definitions of SUDEP and suggested a classification.”
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Maslova, N. N., & Анатольевна, С. В. (2020) · Epilepsy and Paroxysmal Conditions · doi:10.17749/2077-8333.2020.12.1.74-81 · Cited by 3
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“Ein do - kumentierter Status epilepticus über mindestens 30 Min Dauer schließt einen SUDEP jedoch aus [1].”
Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: incidence at a Spanish epilepsy unit
Muñoz, M. I. C., López-Hidalgo, E., Martín, G. G., Rodríguez-Belli, A. O., & Gutiérrez‐Bedmar, M. (2019) · Neurología (English Edition) · doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2017.10.003 · Cited by 3
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González, A., Nome, C. G., Bendiksen, B. A., Sjaastad, I., Zhang, L., Aleksandersen, M., Taubøll, E., Aurlien, D., & Heuser, K. (2020) · Epilepsy Research · doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2020.106300 · Cited by 3
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“New ASMs reduce the risk of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) [8].”
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Valdrighi, A., Laze, J., Farooque, P., Friedman, D. J., Devinsky, O., Singhal, N. S., & Hegde, M. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109845 · Cited by 2
“For deceased patients, deaths were considered SUDEP if they had definite epilepsy (two seizures > 24 h apart or single seizure with EEG epileptiform abnormalities) and met the criteria for SUDEP [13].”
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Özbudak, P., Akbaş, S., Karaduman, A. E., Serdaroğlu, A., Hırfanoğlu, T., & Arhan, E. (2025) · Epileptic Disorders · doi:10.1002/epd2.70057 · Cited by 2
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Palsøe, M. K., Hansen, C. J., Torp-Pedersen, C. T., Línnet, K., Kløvgaard, M., Tfelt‐Hansen, J., & Banner, J. (2025) · Seizure · doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2025.08.007 · Cited by 2
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“…witnessed or unwitnessed, nontraumatic, and nondrowning death in patients with epilepsy, with or without evidence for a seizure and excluding documented status epilepticus, in which postmortem examination does not reveal a structural or toxicologic cause for death” ( Nashef et al., 2012).”
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“Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) is defined as a sudden, unexpected death in individuals with epilepsy, with or without evidence of a seizure, excluding documented status epilepticus, injury, and drowning, in which postmortem examination reveals no toxicological or anatomical cause [1].”
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Sudden Unexpected Death In Epilepsy (SUDEP) - an update
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“Recently, revisiting two previous classifications (Annegers, 1997; Nashef, 1997), an effort unifying definition and new classification of SUDEP was undertaken and proposed (Nashef et al., 2012).”
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“Lastly, possible SUDEP is diagnosed if a competing cause of death is identified, but suspicion of SUDEP still exists [38].”
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Argo, A., Puntarello, M., Malta, G., Buscemi, R., Scalzo, G., Triolo, V., Albano, G. D., & Zerbo, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1231515 · Cited by 2
“Alcohol and drug consumption increases SUDEP risk (6, 43, 44).”
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“…Death” might be related to Sudden Unexpected Deaths in Epilepsy (SUDEP), which is defined as the sudden and unexpected, non-traumatic and non-drowning death of a person with epilepsy without a toxicological or anatomical cause detected at the post-mortem examination (Nashef et al. 2012).”
Mortality in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex in the United Kingdom, 2016–2022
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“This may include SUDEP as historically these have been poorly differentiated (Nashef et al. 2012); the authors also acknowledged that these causes were not verified for their study.”
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“Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is a major cause of death in epilepsy patients [1].”
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“(7).”
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“2,3 SUDEP often occurs among young adults and is second only to stroke in years of potential life lost among neurological diseases, making it the most catastrophic complication of epilepsy.”
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“The pathophysiology of SUDEP appears complex and may involve variable factors, such as loss of arousal, time of day, position of the patient during the seizures, intrinsic pulmonary and cardiac dysfunction, and genetic mutations that predispose patients with epilepsy to seizure-induced cardiorespiratory dysfunction.14…”
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“We hypothesized that his seizure might have been associated with “near-SUDEP” (defined as a patient with epilepsy who survives resuscitation for more than 1 h after a cardiorespiratory arrest that has no structural cause identified after investigation) [11].”
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Sudden unexpected atraumatic arterial dissection-related death after seizures
Vega, J. L., Karim, N., & Hall, C. (2024) · Seizure · doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2024.10.005 · Cited by 1
Marchenko, A. A., Zhuravlev, D., Skalnaya, A. A., Lebedeva, M. A., Sinkin, M. V., Трифонов, И. С., & Guekht, A. B. (2025) · S S Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.17116/jnevro202512508125 · Cited by 1
Caregivers’ experiences and expectations regarding seizure monitoring – A survey-based study
Grote, H., Maltseva, M., Schönberger, J., Antonio‐Arce, V. S., Schubert‐Bast, S., Bast, T., Fazeli, W., Jacobs, J., & Klotz, K. A. (2026) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2026.110914 · Cited by 1
Chen, K., & Fung, S. S.-P. (2026) · Drugs & Therapy Perspectives · doi:10.1007/s40267-026-01221-4 · Cited by 1
Shen, Q., Tao, R., Gao, Y., Li, C., & Wang, S. (2026) · International Journal of Legal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00414-026-03823-z · Cited by 1
“SUDEP is the leading cause of epilepsy-related mortality [ 16, 81, 82 ].”
Ranpariya, M., Kaur, G., Farooq, O., Glover, R. L., & Li, P. (2026) · Seizure · doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2026.05.010 · Cited by 1
Wang, Y., Ge, Y., Zhou, X., Yang, B., Kwan, P., Wang, W., Sander, J. W. A. S., Wu, X., & Ding, D. (2026) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1002/epi.70364 · Cited by 1
Hunter, S. E., Patel, S. H., & Bhatia, S. (2026) · Journal of Child Neurology · doi:10.1177/08830738261462227 · Cited by 1
Lee, J. W., Bansal, P., Smanis, I., Nguyen, J., Pritchard, E., Orozco, J., & Rodriguez, A. (2026) · Epilepsia Open · doi:10.1002/epi4.70329 · Cited by 1
Sinha, S., Chaitanya, G., Subbareddy, S., Velmurugan, J., Arima, A., Rose, B., Mahadevan, A., Nagappa, M., Bindu, P., Rao, M., et al. (2014) · Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology · doi:10.4103/0972-2327.144279 · Cited by 1
“SUDEP is defined as sudden, unexpected, witnessed or unwitnessed, non-traumatic and non-drowning death, occurring in benign circumstances, in an individual with epilepsy, with or without evidence for a seizure and excluding documented status epilepticus (seizure duration > 30 min or seizures without recovery in betwee…”
BackgroundSudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy: What Does Sleep Have to Do With It?
Grigg-Damberger, M. M. (2012) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2012.01.004 · Cited by 1
Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP): an overview
Tomson, T., & Sveinsson, O. A. (2013) · Journal of the Turkish Epilepsi Society · doi:10.5505/epilepsi.2013.66588 · Cited by 1
“[9] The new proposal has set an arbitrary time limit of one hour[8] recognizing that deaths do not always occur instantaneously during the postictal phase.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP) and Certification
Milroy, C. M., & Parai, J. L. (2015) · Academic Forensic Pathology · doi:10.23907/2015.006 · Cited by 1
Mortality and Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP)
Valeta, T. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61679-7_13 · Cited by 1
Prevention of Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy
Ryvlin, P., Tomson, T., & Devinsky, O. (2018) · European Neurological Review · doi:10.17925/enr.2018.13.2.72 · Cited by 1
“Interestingly, SUDEP rates in the US have been reported to be significantly higher in people with lower socioeconomic status, compared with those with higher incomes.11 Classification of sudden unexpected death in epilepsy In 1997, classification of definite, probable, possible and unlikely SUDEP was proposed based on…”
Self-citationSocial Consequences of Medication-Resistant Epilepsy
Crepeau, A. Z., & Sirven, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316492376.005 · Cited by 1
Cirugía de epilepsia en el Centro Médico ABC
Ramírez-Navarrete, E., de Font-Réaulx, E., Terrazo-Lluch, J., González-Astiazarán, A., Collado-Corona, M. Á., Arch-Tirado, E., Canul, R. N. P., Serna, C. V. Q., & Skurovich-Bialik, P. (2020) · Anales Médicos de la Asociación Médica del Centro Médico ABC · doi:10.35366/95675 · Cited by 1
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316492376 · Cited by 1
Is a History of Seizures an Important Risk Factor for Sudden Cardiac Death in Young Athletes?
Paratz, E. D., Scheffer, I. E., & Semsarian, C. (2023) · Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11936-023-00983-8 · Cited by 1
Medicate or operate: epilepsy surgery could save lives
Suresh, H., & Ibrahim, G. M. (2023) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(23)00129-3 · Cited by 1
Functional Exploration of Epilepsy Genes in Patient-Derived Cells
Varela, M. C., Samarasinghe, R. A., & Parent, J. M. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780197549469.003.0042 · Cited by 1
Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP)
Seth, E. A., Khoo, C. S., Arulsamy, A., & Shaikh, M. F. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-7557-0_26 · Cited by 1
Near SUDEP in a patient with craniosynostosis syndrome and temporal lobe encephaloceles
Ta, J., Smith, C., Finley, N. M., Gallagher, M. J., Lagrange, A. H., Lowen, K., Meyer, T., Ganesh, V., Shah, J. V., & Nobis, W. P. (2024) · Epileptic Disorders · doi:10.1002/epd2.20304 · Cited by 1
SUDEP : épidémiologie et prise en charge
Picot, M. (2019) · Pratique Neurologique - FMC · doi:10.1016/j.praneu.2019.02.015 · Cited by 1
Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy: Mechanisms, Risk Factors and the Role of the Nurse
Brennan, D. L., & Powell, A. D. (2019) · British Journal of Neuroscience Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjnn.2019.15.2.64 · Cited by 1
“In addition, a nearSUDEP event is one in which ‘cardiorespiratory arrest was reversed by resuscitation efforts with subsequent survival for more than 1 hour that has no structural cause’ (Nashef et al, 2012).”
BackgroundBiochemical findings in sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Hospital based case-control study
Kishore, S., Gupta, S. K., Arava, S. K., Mridha, A. R., Jaiswal, A. K., Sikary, A. K., Bharti, D. R., & Behera, C. (2019) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2019.101884 · Cited by 1
Bør epilepsipasienter og pårørende informeres om risikoen for plutselig død?
Nakken, K. O., & Henning, O. J. (2020) · Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening · doi:10.4045/tidsskr.19.0708 · Cited by 1
Problem Analysis for Creating an Algorithm for Detecting Episodes of Epileptic Seizures
Durnev, F. O., & Daminova, E. A. (2020) · Ural Symposium on Biomedical Engineering, Radioelectronics and Information Technology (USBEREIT) · doi:10.1109/usbereit48449.2020.9117789 · Cited by 1
“, the death of a patient suffering from epilepsy, with or without signs of a preceding epileptic seizure, when no anatomical or toxicological cause of death is revealed during autopsy [9,10].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Nashef, L., So, E. L., Ryvlin, P., & Tomson, T.
- Affiliations
- King's College Hospital (GB)
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Lyon 1 Université (FR)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Corresponding author
- So, Elson L.
- Venue
- Epilepsia
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-12-22
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 227-233
- ISSN
- 0013-9580 (ISSN-L)
- 1528-1167
- OpenAlex
- W1549808427
- Cited by
- 632
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 54 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 57 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 70 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 59 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 11.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Epilepsia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Epilepsy research and treatment
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac electrophysiology and arrhythmias
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Emergency Medicine › Cardiac Arrest and Resuscitation
- Keywords
- sudden unexpected death in epilepsy, status epilepticus, cardiac arrest, SUDEP incidence, SUDEP risk factors, SUDEP prevention
- MeSH terms
- Death, Sudden, Epilepsy, Humans
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