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Demographic implications of lead poisoning for eagles across North America
Open accessAbstract
Lead poisoning occurs worldwide in populations of predatory birds, but exposure rates and population impacts are known only from regional studies. We evaluated the lead exposure of 1210 bald and golden eagles from 38 US states across North America, including 620 live eagles. We detected unexpectedly high frequencies of lead poisoning of eagles, both chronic (46 to 47% of bald and golden eagles, as measured in bone) and acute (27 to 33% of bald eagles and 7 to 35% of golden eagles, as measured in liver, blood, and feathers). Frequency of lead poisoning was influenced by age and, for bald eagles, by region and season. Continent-wide demographic modeling suggests that poisoning at this level suppresses population growth rates for bald eagles by 3.8% (95% confidence interval: 2.5%, 5.4%) and for golden eagles by 0.8% (0.7%, 0.9%). Lead poisoning is an underappreciated but important constraint on continent-wide populations of these iconic protected species.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Slabe, V. A., Anderson, J. T., Millsap, B. A., Cooper, J. L., Harmata, A. R., Restani, M., Crandall, R. H., Bodenstein, B., Bloom, P. H., Booms, T., Buchweitz, J., Culver, R., Dickerson, K., Domenech, R., Dominguez-Villegas, E., Driscoll, D., Smith, B. W., Lockhart, M. J., McRuer, D., Miller, T. A., Ortiz, P. A., Rogers, K., Schwarz, M., Turley, N., Woodbridge, B., Finkelstein, M. E., Triana, C. A., DeSorbo, C. R., & Katzner, T. E.
- Affiliations
- West Virginia University (US)
- Clemson University (US)
- United States Fish and Wildlife Service (US)
- Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources, Richmond, VA, USA.
- Montana State University (US)
- NorthWestern Energy, Butte, MT, USA.
- Craighead Beringia South, Kelly, WY, USA.
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- Bloom Research Inc., Santa Ana, CA, USA.
- Alaska Department of Fish and Game (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Nextera Energy (United States) (US)
- Raptor View Research Institute, Missoula, MT, USA.
- Wildlife Center of Virginia, Waynesboro, VA, USA.
- American Eagle Research Institute, Apache Junction, AZ, USA.
- Wildlands Photography and Bio-consulting, Littleton, CO, USA.
- Parks Canada (CA)
- Conservation Science Global, Cape May, NJ, USA.
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife (US)
- Idaho Power Company, Boise, ID, USA.
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Biodiversity Research Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Slabe, Vincent A.
- ORCID
- Slabe, Vincent A.
- Anderson, James T.
- Millsap, Brian A.
- Harmata, Alan R.
- Bodenstein, Barbara
- Booms, Travis
- Buchweitz, John
- Culver, Renee
- Dominguez-Villegas, Ernesto
- Driscoll, Daniel
- Smith, Brian W.
- McRuer, David
- Miller, Tricia A.
- Ortiz, Patricia A.
- Turley, Natalie
- Finkelstein, Myra E.
- Triana, Christian A.
- DeSorbo, Christopher R.
- Katzner, Todd E.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2022-02-18
- Volume
- 375
- Issue
- 6582
- Pages
- 779-782
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W4213046832
- Semantic Scholar
- 6ef078573ec7cd64672065f0e4a41851c74bf152
- Cited by
- 70
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 11
- FWCI
- 5.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- lead poisoning, bald eagle, golden eagle, raptors, population growth rate, chronic lead exposure, age-related susceptibility, seasonal variation, protected species, North America
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