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BOLD: Dataset and Metrics for Measuring Biases in Open-Ended Language Generation
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Recent advances in deep learning techniques have enabled machines to generate cohesive open-ended text when prompted with a sequence of words as context. While these models now empower many downstream applications from conversation bots to automatic storytelling, they have been shown to generate texts that exhibit social biases. To systematically study and benchmark social biases in open-ended language generation, we introduce the Bias in Open-Ended Language Generation Dataset (BOLD), a large-scale dataset that consists of 23,679 English text generation prompts for bias benchmarking across five domains: profession, gender, race, religion, and political ideology. We also propose new automated metrics for toxicity, psycholinguistic norms, and text gender polarity to measure social biases in open-ended text generation from multiple angles. An examination of text generated from three popular language models reveals that the majority of these models exhibit a larger social bias than human-written Wikipedia text across all domains. With these results we highlight the need to benchmark biases in open-ended language generation and caution users of language generation models on downstream tasks to be cognizant of these embedded prejudices.
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“Question-answering models may rely on stereotypes to answer questions in ambiguous contexts (Dhamala et al. 2021; Parrish et al. 2022).”
From Bias and Fairness in Large Language Models: A Survey (2024) · cites this paper as Dhamala et al. 2021
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“Language models can produce biased outputs (Dhamala et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2021; Manela et al., 2021; Caliskan et al., 2017; Kirk et al., 2021), leak private data (Carlini et al., 2021), generate misinformation (Solaiman et al., 2019; Buchanan et al., 2021), and be used maliciously”
From Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback (2022) · cites this paper as Dhamala et al., 2021
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“LLMs may exhibit social biases and toxicity [37, 53, 153] during the generation process, resulting in the production of biased outputs.”
From A Survey on Evaluation of Large Language Models (2024) · cites this paper as [37]
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“The dataset is collected by scraping English Wikipedia pages that mention a group in the bias domain ( i.e. , profession), and truncating sentences to form prompts.”
From Bias and Fairness in Large Language Models: A Survey (2024) · cites this paper as Dhamala et al. 2021
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“BOLD introduces 23,679 prompts to assess bias in profession, gender, race, religion, and political ideology.”
From Bias and Fairness in Large Language Models: A Survey (2024) · cites this paper as Dhamala et al. 2021
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“RealToxicityPrompts (Gehman et al. 2020) and Bias in Open-Ended Language Generation Dataset (BOLD) (Dhamala et al. 2021) both provide web-based sentence prefixes”
From Bias and Fairness in Large Language Models: A Survey (2024) · cites this paper as Dhamala et al. 2021
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Metadata
- Authors
- Dhamala, J., Sun, T., Kumar, V., Krishna, S., Pruksachatkun, Y., Chang, K.-W., & Gupta, R.
- Affiliations
- Amazon (United States) (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- ORCID
- Dhamala, Jwala
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2021-03
- Pages
- 862-872
- OpenAlex
- W3123340107
- Cited by
- 244
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 65 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 29.66
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Topic Modeling
- Keywords
- social bias, open-ended text generation, bias metrics, toxicity, psycholinguistic norms, gender polarity, gender bias, racial bias, religious bias, large language models
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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