Gender differences in carbohydrate loading are related to energy intake
Abstract
We demonstrated that female endurance athletes did not increase their muscle glycogen concentration after an increase in the dietary carbohydrate intake (58 → 74%), whereas men did (Tarnopolsky MA, SA Atkinson, SM Phillips, and JD McDougall, J Appl Physiol 78: 1360–1368, 1995). This may have been related to a lower energy or carbohydrate intake by the women or due to an inherent gender difference in glycogen storage capacity. We examined whether well-trained men ( n = 6) and women ( n = 6) increased muscle glycogen concentration after an increase in both the relative (58 → 75%) and absolute energy and carbohydrate intake and whether potential gender differences were related to muscle hexokinase enzyme activity. Subjects were randomly allocated to three diets [Hab, habitual; CHO, high carbohydrate (75%); and CHO + E, extra energy + CHO (↑∼34%)] for a 4-day period before a muscle biopsy for analysis of total and pro- and macroglycogen and hexokinase activity. Total glycogen concentration was higher for the men on the CHO and CHO + E trials compared with Hab ( P < 0.05), whereas women increased only on the CHO + E trial compared with Hab ( P < 0.05). There were no gender differences in the proportion of pro- and macroglycogen or hexokinase activity. A low energy intake may explain the previously reported lower capacity for women to glycogen load compared with men.
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Although lower muscle glycogen storage in the mid-follicular phase appears to be overcome by CHO loading, the greater intramuscular glycogen concentrations failed to translate into improved time trial performance.
“Although the lower level of muscle glycogen storage in the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle appears to be overcome by CHO loading, the greater intramuscular glycogen concentrations failed to translate into improved time trial performance [182,184].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [184]
Carbohydrate loading at 8.4-9.0 g/kg body weight/day increases resting muscle glycogen concentration in the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.
“carbohydrate loading (8.4–9.0 g.kg body weight−1.d−1) has been shown to increase resting muscle glycogen concentration in the mid-follicular (MF) phase of the menstrual cycle [184,185].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [184]
In female subjects, substantial enhancement of muscle glycogen storage is associated with increased dietary CHO intake only after total energy intake is also increased.
“In the latter study, female subjects showed a substantial enhancement of muscle glycogen storage associated with increased dietary CHO intake only after total energy intake was also increased (104).”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [104]
The relationship between dietary CHO and glycogen storage is underpinned by total energy intake.
“Indeed, there is evidence that the relationship between dietary CHO and glycogen storage is underpinned by total energy intake.”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [104]
The lower effectiveness of glycogen super-compensation in female athletes is an outcome of relatively lower energy intake in the female cohort.
“but this finding was later reinterpreted as an outcome of the relatively lower energy intake in the female cohort (104).”
From Postexercise muscle glycogen resynthesis in humans. (2017) · cites this paper as [104]
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References 25 · Cited by 138
- Authors
- Tarnopolsky, M. A., Zawada, C., Richmond, L. B., Carter, S., Shearer, J., Graham, T., & Phillips, S. M.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- Departments of Medicine (Neurology and Rehabilitation) and
- University of Guelph (CA)
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2001-07-01
- Volume
- 91
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 225-230
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- OpenAlex
- W2185455343
- Cited by
- 138
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- carbohydrate loading, gender differences, muscle glycogen, energy intake, carbohydrate intake, hexokinase activity, endurance athletes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Diet, Dietary Carbohydrates, Double-Blind Method, Female, Glycogen, Hexokinase, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Muscle, Skeletal
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