The DOI matches its Crossref record; 5 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 1 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin
Open accessAbstract
I did not invent penicillin
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
A short biographical narrative of Alexander Fleming (1881–1955), tracing his Scottish upbringing, medical training at St Mary's, the accidental discoveries of lysozyme and penicillin, and his later honours and death. It is a commemorative biography rather than an original research study.
Key findings
- Fleming was born on August 6, 1881 at Lochfield Farm, Scotland, graduated with distinction from St Mary's Medical School in 1906, and remained with Sir Almroth Wright's research group throughout his career.
- In 1922 he discovered lysozyme, an enzyme with weak antibacterial properties found in nasopharyngeal mucus, tears, saliva, skin, hair, fingernails and egg white; it was effective against only a small number of non-harmful bacteria.
- In 1928, an uncovered Petri dish contaminated with mould led him to identify the Penicillium genus and name its antibacterial "mould juice" penicillin; he found it effective against all Gram-positive pathogens (e.g. scarlet fever, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, meningitis, diphtheria).
- His 1929 publication in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology met little initial enthusiasm, and large-scale isolation was achieved only in 1940 by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain; Fleming shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine with them.
Methods
- Design: narrative biography, not an empirical study; no stated study design, dataset, or analysis.
- Content is organised chronologically/thematically (Beginnings, Fortunate Choices, "Mould Juice", Personal Life) and draws on a bibliography of secondary sources (e.g. MacFarlane, Maurois, Ludovici, Nobel Lectures).
- No sample, statistical analysis, or systematic methodology is reported.
Limitations
- Not stated in the paper: the article presents no limitations section.
- Evident from the text: it is a biographical narrative relying on secondary sources rather than primary archival research, with no stated methods for source selection or verification.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Figures
Verification
Claims the paper makes
24 No basis given · 3 Own result · 1 Sources not found
In the paper
“Although Fleming published the discovery of penicillin in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in 1929”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fleming A. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae. 1929.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He discerned that it was not the mould itself but some 'juice' it had produced that had killed the bacteria.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“earned Fleming - together with Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, who devised methods for the large-scale isolation and production of penicillin - the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fleming observed that the bacteria in proximity to the mould colonies were dying, as evidenced by the dissolving and clearing of the surrounding agar gel.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“experiments found that this enzyme was effective against only a small number of non-harmful bacteria.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It was not until 1940, just as he was contemplating retirement, that two scientists, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, became interested in penicillin.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In time, they were able to mass-produce it for use during World War II.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 20
- It may state two separate claims as one. 3
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“earned Fleming - together with Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, who devised methods for the large-scale isolation and production of penicillin - the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in 1922, he discovered lysozyme, an enzyme with weak antibacterial properties.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An uncovered Petri dish sitting next to an open window became contaminated with mould spores.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1943”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 1928, Fleming began a series of experiments involving the common staphylococcal bacteria.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A recipient of some thirty honorary degrees”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He found it to be effective against all Gram-positive pathogens, which are responsible for diseases such as scarlet fever, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, meningitis and diphtheria.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He was soon able to isolate larger amounts of lysozyme from egg white”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the scientific community greeted his work with little initial enthusiasm.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He also discovered lysozyme in tears, saliva, skin, hair and fingernails.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Alfonso X the Wise in 1948.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 1928, he became Professor of Bacteriology at St Mary's.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in 1945, he won the most prestigious award, the Nobel Prize in Physiology/ Medicine.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He named the 'mould juice' penicillin.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He was able to isolate the mould and identified it as a member of the Penicillium genus.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“He was made a Knight Bachelor by King George VI in 1944”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Time Magazine named Fleming one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“in 1922, he discovered lysozyme, an enzyme with weak antibacterial properties.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Additionally, Fleming found it difficult to isolate this precious 'mould juice' in large quantities.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A lexander Fleming was a Scottish physician-scientist who was recognised for discovering penicillin.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“elevated to the level of Emeritus Professor of Bacteriology at the University of London in 1948.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Penicillin has saved millions of lives.
“The simple discovery and use of the antibiotic agent has saved millions of lives”
Citations
Cites
Fleming, A. (2001) · PubMed Central · Cited by 245
Three Centuries of Microbiology.
(1975) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-82-1-132_4 · Cited by 118
Nobelstiftelsen, Lindsten, J., & Jörnvall, H. (1964) · Cited by 35
The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming.
BEAN, W. B. (1960) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1960.00270130184022 · Cited by 33
The life of Sir Alexander Fleming, discoverer of penicillin
Maurois, A. (1959) · Cited by 20
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- • Berger M. Famous Men of Modern Biology. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968.
- • Ludovici LJ. Fleming: Discoverer of Penicillin. London: The Scientific Book Club, 1952.
- • MacFarlane G. Alexander Fleming. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
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Li, S., Dong, S., Xu, W., Tu, S., Yan, L., Zhao, C., Ding, J., & Chen, X. (2018) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.201700527 · Cited by 1,148
A Review of the Microbial Production of Bioactive Natural Products and Biologics
Pham, J. V., Yilma, M. A., Feliz, A., Majid, M. T., Maffetone, N., Walker, J. R., Kim, E., Cho, H. J., Reynolds, J. M., Song, M., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.01404 · Cited by 570
Dhingra, S., Rahman, N. A. A., Peile, E., Rahman, M., Sartelli, M., Hassali, M. A., Islam, T., Islam, S., & Haque, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.535668 · Cited by 364
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Metadata
- Authors
- Tan, S., & Tatsumura, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Hawaii System (US)
- University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
- Venue
- Singapore Medical Journal
- Published
- 2015-07
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 07
- Pages
- 366-367
- ISSN
- 0037-5675 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4520913
- OpenAlex
- W1582926274
- Cited by
- 342
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 8.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-sa
- Locations
- Singapore Medical Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Historical Medical Research and Treatments
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Medical History and Innovations
- Keywords
- Alexander Fleming, penicillin, penicillin discovery, history of antibiotics
- MeSH terms
- Bacteriology, Humans, Penicillins, Philately, Scotland, History, 20th Century
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- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.11622/smedj.2015105
- The paper
- Tan, S., & Tatsumura, Y. (2015). Alexander Fleming (1881–1955): Discoverer of penicillin. Singapore Medical Journal. https://doi.org/10.11622/smedj.2015105
